HST 111

Lecture: The Protestant Reformation

Background: the Northern Renaissance

• “Christian Humanisim”

• Desiderius Erasmus: Austrian monk, priest, scholar. Wrote Handbook of the Christian knight, In praise of Foly, and Greek New Testament 

  • Set stage for reformation by editing/translating christian writings and attacking many christian teachings and clerical abuses. Wanted to establsh an authoritative text

  • In Praise of Folly: Critique of the lavish lifestyles and materialistic/non-spiritual practices lead by the pope and the clergy

The Printing Press

• Johanes Gutenberg

• 1% of the rural population and 3-4% of the urban population could read

• Now info can be spread 

Roots of the protestant reformation

• The protestant reformation was the division between Kings/Secular Rulers and the church, calling for a seperation between the religous and secular worlds

• Crises of the church: Babylonian Captivity, Great Schisim, failed Conciliar Movement

• Call for reform back to original christian teachings 

• Spread of humanisim and Northern “Christian” humanisim (Christian Writings)

• The Printing Press: Spread ideas

• The Church had become corrupt:

  • Sold church officies (benefices) to those who had money, not who was qualified

  • Immune from civil justice (only trialed in church courts- no punishment)

  • Clerics paid no taxes, but still collected tithe

  • Didnt observe celibacy

• Letter of Indulgence: A purchasable pardon for punishments for any sins committed. The sinner would typically confess and undergo penance (prayers and good work) and then absolution (the stain of sin us now gone). If penance was not completed on earth, it would have to be finished in purgatory.The purchase of an indulgence was believed to pardon the penance, and lessen the time spent in purgatory, granting faster admission to heaven.  Indulgences did not assure the forgiveness of a sin, as the only person who could forgive was God. 

• Johann Tetzel: Sold indulgences in germany: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs”

Martin Luther: 

• Priest, professor of theology, Born saxony. 

• Wondered how one would achieve salvation if man was so corrupted by sin. He constantly believed that there was a sin he forgot to confess.

• Believed that the church put too much emphasis of the External manifestation of faith rather than the innter spiritual life. 

• Believed that “Good Works” (External mainestations of faith such as fasting, prayer, going to church) were easy to be faked because they are performative in nature.

Church Doctrine states that Faith + Good Works = Salvation (Martin believes this to be faulty)

Luther’s “Inner” vs “Outer” Man

• Luther believes in the duality of man (The soul and the body)

• Faith belongs to the Inner man, and Good Works to the outer man. 

• Belief that faith alone was enough for salvation and that Good Works were unnecessary because Jesus had already atoned for man’s sins, so you just needed to believe in God.

Luthers 3 Principles: Good Works would come naturally come if you had a true inner faith, but werent nessesary.

1. Scripture alone is the source of doctrine (Attack on pope, who used to also be a source)

2. Faith alone is nessesary, Good Works arent

3. “The Priesthood of all believers” Every person can be their own priest by reading the bible, clergy not necessary. 

Attack on the intermediary role of the church. 

• Nintey five theses (attacking power of indulgences) were nailed to the door of the castle church. These attacked the sale of Indulgences, and resuilted in Martin Luther being denounced by the pope. 

Break with Rome

• Martin Luther broke ties with the church of Rome at a public debate against Papl Legate John Eck, where Luther claimed that the pope was not infallale (unable to make a mistake). This resulted in Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther and condemned him for 41 heracies.

Heretic Saved:

• 1521 - Edict of Worms, condemned luther as a heretic (can’t preach)

• Frederick the Wise kidnapped Luther to keep him safe at Wartburd Castle, while he was there he translated the bible into German.

Lutheran Church: Became a state religon in Germany, Denmark, Sweden.

•  More radican reformers Zwingli and Calvin followed in Switzerkand, Scotland, etc. 

Historical Significance: 

• Western European Christian now split into 2: the Reformed (protestant) church and the Catholic (universal) church.

• Followed by 100 years of warfare and an eventual but precarious toletation of each other

Lecture: The Family and Conditions fo Life in the Early Modern Era

Conditions of life:

• Third Estate: Life is a struggle womp womp. (hunger n famine n disease)

Peasants: 80-90% of the population - widley diverse group. (age, race, wealth, region, etc.) A “rural cultivator” farming using the labour resources provided by his household”

Household: Basic economic, socal, and political unit. Everyone living under a roof (including servants/livestock). There are also Nuclear and Extended households.

• Nuclear Household: North-west europe. A married couple and their children. Could become extended at times

• Extended Household: Southern France, eastern europe, etc. More than one married couple and their children. May of been nuclear once. (example: Martin Guerre)

• Internal Structure of the Household: Patriarchal Authority

  • Male Head: Eldest Heir. (Nuclear = Husband). Had control over the household, it’s resources, the rest of the members of the household. Has the right to punish/discipline members of the household. (physically/verbally, whateva) This was all mandated by law. There were limits.

• Proverbs Exist: Silly little sayings. (ex. “Where this is a woman, there is no silence”)

• Charivari: Community control over transgression of gender roles. Public shaming of people who did not align with social norms (ie: remairrage of widows, age difference, inadequate wives/husbands)

  • Abbeys of young men get together and perform Charivari

  • Victims could be placed on the back of a donkey, paraded around, beat, etc. 

• Peasant marriage was an unequal partnership

Inheritance Customs

• Impartible Inheritance: Most of england and europe. A single heir takes all. Gets problematic in the absence of a male heir

• Partible Inheritance: Parts of England, western France, South-west germany. Land was divided between all the children (sons AND daughters). Proved to be impractical because with every generation the land plots became smaller and smaller. Slowly adopted Impartible inheritance. 

Life Cycle: Late Marriage:

• Late Marriage was the norm in Western Europe:

• Women: Avg age 25, Men: avg age 28

• Why?: To obtain their inheritance, and to save money if working to establish an independent household

Teenage Marriage:

• Typical for extended peasant households. The couple would live with the husbands extende family household, so there was no reason to wait for economic independence. Family could also help to finance them. 

• Youngest age was 14 for boys and 12 for girls. 

• Typical pattern of older husbands and younger wives.

Marriage: Was desirable. Marriage gave you higher status, legal sex, social and economic intependence. And authority over your household. 

Age of Majority: Women - 25, Men - 30. Your father has control over you until this point, and honestly still even after because he has the ability to deny inheritance. 

Arranged Marriage: 

• Marriage was arranged by parents or guardians. Parents quickly realized that marrying their kids to people they did not like did not turn out well in the long run. 

• Wealth and status had to be somewhat similar. Marrying had to be local (endogamy)

Were Peasants promiscuous: 

• “Roll in the Hay” alludes to the notion that when not working, peasants just luv to get freaky in the fields.

• Peasants were NOT promiscuous!!! Low illigetimacy rates, and peasant sexuality were regulated strictly by community standards and values (very anti premarital sex and illigetimate children)

Legality of Marriage:

• Peasant practice: Exchanging vows literally anywhere, and a marriage contract is drawn up via a notary. (specification of a dowry), consummation

• The Church added: Marriage is a sacrament and the public exchange of marriage vows should happen at the church without coercion from the parents. A priest would act as a witness and bless the couple.

Church and state prescriptions: 

• Church ruled that a church ceremony was needed for a legal marriage. 

• Protestants and french state (by legal legislation - royal decree) that parental consent was required for legal marriage. 

• Part of a trend of increading parternal control over the family

• The family was seens as a mirror of the state.

Marriage and procreation

• For procreation and a remedy for concupiscence (lust)

• Married couples expected to have children 

• Anxiety around anything preventing procreation (remedies exist)

Marriage Dissoloution:

• Legally, a marriage can only be ended by the death of someone

• Divoce was not allowed

• Annulment was possible but only on strict riles (sexual impotence, etc)

Lecture: The Counter-Reformation and the Religious Wars (Part 1)

• For some reason we’re talking about Henry the Eighth’s six wives??? (Divorced Beheaded Died Divorced Beheaded Survived- Whateva) 

Counter Reformation or Catholic Reformati

Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation

• Counter-Reformation Popes:

  • Paul III (1534-1549): Convoked the Council of Trent (1545); established the Roman Inquisition; founded the Jesuit Order.

  • Paul IV (1555-1559): Established the Index of Forbidden Books.

  • Saint Pius (1566-1572).

  • Sixtus V (1585-1590).

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

• Tridentine Reforms:

  • Council under papal control; dominated by high-ranking Italian prelates.

  • Confirmed core Catholic doctrines, which Protestants had challenged or rejected.

  • Declared all reformed doctrines to be “anathema” (cursed).

  • Key Protestant ideas opposed:

    1. “The priesthood of all believers.”

    2. Belief that good works are not necessary for salvation.

    3. “Sola scriptura” (Bible as sole authority).

    4. Doctrine of predestination (Calvin).

• Catholic Doctrines Confirmed:

  • Papal Authority: Supreme authority of the pope.

  • Authority Sources: Scripture and tradition deemed equal in religious authority.

  • Scripture Interpretation: Only the Church could interpret Scripture.

  • Salvation Requirements: Both faith and good works necessary.

  • Seven Sacraments: Baptism, confirmation, communion (Eucharist), last rites, marriage, confession, and ordination (Protestants only recognize two sacraments: baptism and communion).

  • Doctrine of Transubstantiation: Bread and wine become body and blood of Christ.

  • Clergy Celibacy: Rule of celibacy upheld.

  • Belief in Purgatory: Affirmed Catholic belief.

  • Indulgences: Upheld the granting and efficacy but prohibited selling them.

  • Veneration of Saints: Reaffirmed the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images.

  • Clergy Discipline and Education: Set up theological seminaries in every diocese.

  • Bishops’ Authority: Strengthened to discipline religious practices.

  • Suppression of Local Religious Practices: Attacked popular culture by suppressing local religious practices and saints’ cults.

Conclusions of the Council of Trent

• Protestant doctrines unequivocally condemned.

• Catholic doctrines, beliefs, and practices confirmed and reasserted.

• Internal Church Reforms: Prohibited selling church offices; enforced celibacy; demanded formal education for parish priests.

• Clergy required to play a more visible, active role among parishioners.

• Catholic Church demanded loyalty and obedience from believers, reaffirming clergy's traditional role.

Effects of the Council of Trent on Europe

• The Council of Trent represented the Catholic Church's uncompromising stance against Protestantism.

• Solidified the irreparable split between Catholics and Protestants in Western Christendom.

New Institutions Post-Trent

• Roman Inquisition (1542): Enforced orthodoxy; identified and eliminated heretics and heretical doctrines.

• Index of Forbidden Books (1564): Censored reading material for Catholics, especially Protestant works (Luther, Calvin), Erasmus, Machiavelli, Descartes, Galileo, among others.

• New Religious Orders: Brotherhoods like the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) were created to defend the Church and promote a new type of piety.

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) and the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

• Background:

  • Basque nobleman and soldier, wounded in battle at age 30.

  • During convalescence, read saints' lives and sought to become a “warrior for Christianity.”

• Spiritual Exercises (1535, published 1541): Aimed to cultivate disciplined mastery over body and mind, fostering spiritual and emotional experiences.

  • Goal: Live an internal and external life leading to soul salvation; obedience to Church and pope.

• Founding of Society of Jesus (1540):

  • Vows: Poverty, celibacy, faith, and special vow to obey the Pope.

  • Mission: Spread the faith, answer only to the Pope, and act as militant defenders of the Church.

Jesuit Program and Functions

• Core Activities:

  1. Preaching.

  2. Education: Jesuit schools taught a humanist curriculum and became highly regarded.

  3. Missionary Work: Strengthened Catholic faith among Roman Catholics and converted Protestants and non-Christians (India, China, Spanish America).

“Union of Hearts” - New Catholic Spirituality

• Counter-Reformation called for renewed Catholic spirituality, emphasizing:

  • Discipline and meditation on Christianity.

  • Mystical experiences of Christ's Passion and physical suffering.

  • Music used to convey emotional messages of spirituality.

  • St. Teresa of Avila: Example of a Counter-Reformation figure promoting inner spirituality.

Jesuit Disbandment and Reinstatement

• Results of Counter-Reformation: Catholic faith was defended and revitalized.

• Suppression: Jesuits expelled from Portugal (1759), France (1764), Spanish Empire (1767), dissolved by Pope (1773).

• Reinstatement: Re-established by Pope in 1814.

Political Consequences of the Protestant Reformation: The Religious Wars (1540s-1648)

• For nearly a century, Catholic rulers attempted to eliminate Protestantism but failed, resulting in:

  1. Recognition of religious diversity and toleration.

  2. Emergence of the sovereign state, prioritizing “raison d'état” (reason of state).

Major Religious Wars

1. German Wars (1540s–1555):

   • Conflict: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, vs. Protestant princes.

   • Resolution: Peace of Augsburg (1555) allowed separate states to practice Protestantism; introduced “Cuius regio, eius religio” (ruler determines religion).

2. French Wars of Religion (1562-1598):

   • Context: Calvinists (Huguenots) vs. Catholics.

   • Key Events: Weak monarchy after Henry II’s death; St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572).

   • Resolution: Henry IV’s Edict of Nantes (1598) allowed limited religious freedom for Huguenots while maintaining Catholicism as France’s official religion.

3. Dutch Wars with Spain (1566-1609):

   • Conflict: Calvinism spread in the Netherlands, sparking violence between Protestants and Catholics.

   • Resolution: Truce in 1609 recognized the independence of the Northern Dutch Republic (Calvinist), while southern provinces remained Catholic under Spanish rule.

The Habsburg Empire and the Protestant Reformation

• Origin: Habsburgs originated in Austria and extended power through marriage and inheritance.

• Empire Building: Expanded territories in Europe and Americas; acquired Hungary and Bohemia.

• Charles V (1500-1558): Unified Habsburg territories and ruled as both Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain.

• Habsburg Ambitions: Encircled France, opposing national and dynastic rivals seeking to balance power in Europe.

I need to fill in like 3 lectures here

Postmodern Magical World View

• Literally everyone (upper and lower class) believes in witchcraft

• White/Good magic and Black/Evil Magic

• Belief in the fact that supernatural forces rule the world, and some humans have learned to access them, for good or for bad. 

• Church tolerated belief and practices till the  reformation/Counter Reformation

The Traditional Early Modern Witch

• The Witch was a common practicioner, and powerless people come to them to try and find more control in their lives, especially i the face of (common) hostile circumstances

• Witches would help sear ch for a marriage partner, or help with fertility issues, childbirth, crop failure, illness, poverty, luck in gambling, looking for treasure.

• Witches were also herbalists, and knew lots about portions, amulets and rituals 

New Definition of the witch in the 1480’s

• Demonology = linkin ght e witch and the devil in a pact

• In 1484, Pope Innovent VIII (8), order inquisitors to find and eliminate alleged witches using any means, including torture. 

• This change happened as the reformation began and continued into the upcoming religious wars. 

• Europeans were experienccing lots of fear aboit life, sin, death, and salvation. They also believed tha their world was threatened by the devil, who worked through the witches. 

The Witch Hunts and Trials

• In the catholic and protestant lands, including both the religious and secular leaders

• 100k-110k trials - abt 50% lead to excecution. 

• 75-80% women, most were over 40 yer old, often widows, midwives, healers, and herbalists.

• The Peak of the witch hunts were during the peak of the religious wars

Why Mostly Women Witches

• Misogyny 

• Attack on Socially undesirables (poor, aged, single women)

• Attack on popular culture

• Fear of Death (Since Many were midwives, the high infant mortality rate was instead correlateed with the witches and evil over anything else)

The Witch Trials

• The collaboration between the church and secular authorities

• Denuncuation and the use of torture to get a confession. (Judge influenced the content of the witches)
  There was a relationship between the torturer and the alleged witch

• Experience of isolation, physical torture and mental anguish of the accused

From Witch Trials to Witch Craze

Lecture: The Age of Discovery and European Overseas Empires 1450-1750

Forces behind European Expansion: 

• Land Hunger: As the population expanded and more children survived their youth, the need for more land became known (Individual chindren had less inheritance because they couldve had siblings that also survived, which was very unlikley a century earlier)

• THere was a bigger need for a more direct trade route to Africa and the East because the Ottoman Empire controlledthe eastern Mediterranean sea and lands

• Spain and Portugal (Monarchical states) were needing new sources of income because they’d been fighting a war or reconquest (A war or reconquest was seen as a religious war, like a crusading mission which aimed to spread christianity in traditionally non-traditional lands)

• Tech: - New weapon: The cannon, at first cast iron (heavy). It was improved and then was cast from bronze and was lighter, more powerful and more mobile. Due to innovations like this Europe was ahead of other civilizations

  • European naval superiority means that they were more successful at sea - lighter bronze was put on ships, which made these ships armed. This further enabled their successful colonial conquest. 

China’s Treasure Fleet (1405-1433) - A possible competitor

• Admiral Zheng He 

• Chinese treasure shi[s were 400ft long, and had 9 masts. 

• They had over 100 subbly ships, patrol boats, water tankers which were crewed by over 28k sailors and soldiers

• 7 voyages in the china seas and the indian ocean, but after 1433, the chinese emperor forbade overseas travel and stioeed all building of “oceangoing junks?”

• China could have been a great colonial power, but it wasnt. It was more focused on their internal problems, and it was already a big country, which meant that the really just didn’t have the motivation to expand. 

Navigational Tools: were used (maps, compasses, quadrants, astrolabe) Both came from the arab room using the north star as a point of reference

Portuguese Empire: 

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Expanded to Africa. Went lots of places.(Ceuta, Canary Islands) - They bult forts along the western coast of Africa

Vasco da Gama

• In 1495, Vasco was comisseioned by the Pirtuguese king to find a direct sea route to India. 

• The Goal was to find Christians, as Christian kingdoms were believed to exist in Asia. They wanted to trade directly with the source of eEastern spices without intermediaries (Italian shipping merchants and arab/muslim traders)

• They voyaged. And met the Hindu Ruler - ‘The Zamorin” 

  • They wanted an alliance, but when the Zamorin was reluctant, Gama restored to violence and terrorisim, eventually did obtain the trading privelleges. They left with shiploads of Ginger and Cinnamon

• Eventually, the Portuguese would cominate the spice trade via a series of trading posts. 

• This is colonialism, but not like the settling type of colonialism

The “Reconquest”

• 1469: Castile and Aragon were united by marriage, of Isabella and Ferdinand, “The Catholic Monachs”

• They completed the reconquest by capturing Granada in 1492

• Basically just re-conquesting spain

Columbus

• Comissioned by Spain, 1st of 4 voyages in 1492

• Went lots of placed

• In 1498 he visited the mainland - present day venezuela, thinking it was India, China, or Japan

The Name America

• In 1500, Pedro Cabral found south america. 

• Amerigo Vespucci - Italian cartographer explored who wrote letters about the continent. Coins the phrase “Mundus Novus” - New world and “Ameriga”

Other Significant Discoveries: 

• Cabra; accidentally landed on South america and claimed it for the king, and it would eventually become a Portuguese colony, Brazil. 

• 1519: Ferdinand Magellan - circumnavigation of the globe, and was killed in the phillipines, which his some country, spain, later colonized. This established a spanish presence alongside the portuguese in southeast asia. 

The papl donation of 1493:

• The pope- Alexander VI sanctioned Spaniush and Portuguese colonization

• Drew a demarcation line north-south, 100 leagues west of the Caoe Verde Islands, dividing the world into two zomes for colonization, Portuguese in the east, the Spanish in the west. (basically splitting the area qand letting them colonize whatever.

The Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494

• After the Portuguese king threatened to wage war with spain, Portugan and Spain agreed that the demacation line was to be moved further west, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. This gave Portugal the chance to colonize the americas

Colonial envcounters between Indigenous peoples and the Europeans

• Colombus and his crew wncounteres Tainos, an Arawak tribe.
  He had a gold rush mentality, but Colimbus saw himself as a man of god, and acted as a dictatorial leader, demanding resources and slaves by looting and kidnapping and used forces indigenous labout to mine for hold. 

• Established a small fort, called La Navidad, left 39 men of his group of 90 to guard it and collect gold from the indigenous tribe. While he was away, the Tainos destroyed navidad anyways. These revolts were brutally suppressed by Columbus after his return

Columbus removed from Hispaniola

• In genera, there was resentment in columbus’s rile. 

• Upon his return on his third voyage, Columbus tried to restore order and hangs disloyal spaniards

• Compaints were sent to the Spanish Monarchy, which added to already existing complaints.

• King Ferdinand appointed a new governor, Francisco De Bobadilla.

• Columbus and his 2 brothers were sent in chains back to Spain. He was imprisoned, but allowed by the king to go on his 4th voyage (but could only explore)

• The Tainos were decimated by brutal treatment and epidemic diseased and mass suicides. 

• 1492: 1-3 milion Tainos → 1550: Extinct

The American Mainland: Mexico

• Hernando Cortez: Encountered the Aztecs. Brought many troops, horses, muskets, cannons

The American mainland: Peru

• Francisco Pizzaro: victory of the Incan Empire of Peru. Also brought many men, horses, canons, and made Indigenous allues.

Reasons for Spanish Success:

• Myth of white gods arriving by sea from afar. - Made the indigenous people believe that the colonizers may have some kind of heavenly nature to them

• They Eliminated indigenous rulers and replaced them with Spanish rulers. 

• Internal Enemied. Used indigenous allies who opposed Aztec/Inca Rule

• Tech: Iron smelting was unknown to the indigenous people, but the Europeans had gunpowder based weapons

• Indigenous people werent exposed to all these new different diseased

• The Brutality of war and forced labour, 

• Death Rates of 50-90% 

The Economy of Exploitation: The Carribean Islands

• Draft Labour:

  • Repartimento: Division of indigenous peoples among the colonists to appropriate indigenous draft labour, usually worked in the mines or on land.

  • Encomendero: The recipient of this allegation, did not own the workers, who were not legally enslaved. Workers remained under the authority of their own chieftains who provided groups of workers in rotation

• Slave Labour: Chattel property of an owner, captives of raids or war. 

The Economy of Exploitation: The Mainland (New Spain and Peru, early 1500s)

• Repartimiento continued and developed as encomienda

• Leaders of expieditions assigned excomiendas to the menbers of their expeditions as a reward

• They assigned cheiftains and their indigenous peoples provided tribune payments inthe forms of cash or goods to the encomendero

• Indignous labour was also provided in the encomernderos mines, the field, the homes, or workshops,

• The encomenderos demand for labour were excessive

The critics of Colonization

• Cathlic missionaries spoke out against the abise of indigenous peoples. 

• People wanted to persuade the king towards reform. The main argument was that the Spaniards had slaughered millions of indians in the conquest of the Caribbean, Mesoamerica, and Per

Slavery: 

• There as a frasti decline in the native indigenous populations in colonial Latin America

• Colonixers turned to the labour of imported african slaves, working mostly i mines, sugar and coffe plantations. 

• 9-12 ,illion imported to the new world. 13-40% perished in the “Middle Passage”

European global dominance

Lecture: The Age of Absolutisim

The emergence of 3 political concepts during and since the 30 years war

1. Growth of Raison d’etat: Moral implications not important in politics,rreligion will take second place over what is important for the state, politics in first. 

2. Growth of loyalty to the state or nation

3. Loss of religion as a guiding force in international addairs

4. Growth of absolutisim and centralization (absilutist regime) of the 17th + 18th centuries

People arent citizens unless there’s a constitution - and there was no constitution. They are subjects. 

Louis is famous for saying whatever french it is that means “I am the state”

Beginnings of Absolutisim: France

• Assasination of Henry IV in 1610

• Louis XIII (Boy king - 8 years old) - reigned 1610-43

• Marie de Madici, Louis’s mother ruled as the regent 1610-1617 until the king was 16 years old

• Now 16, louis found a good minister: Armand Jean Du Plessis de Richelieu (1585-1642) he was the bishop of Luçon, and then became Louis’s chief minister in 1624. He was kinda brought aboard to help makeup for the shortcomings of Louis’s reign

Richelieu’s contribution to enhance the power of the throne

1. Make France Great (again? Haha so funny)

2. Make the monarch absolute

3. Wrote a treatise, The Political Testament (published 1680, about how the centralize monarchical rule.) - Control the Huguenot (French Calvanist Monarchy), control the nobles

Rcihelieu’s Policy

Huguenots

• Becoming a state within a state as a result of Henry IV’s Edict of Nantes (Like a protestant enclave)

• Reacted against pro-catholic policies folllowed ufuring the reign of Louis XIII

• Various Rebellions

• La Rochelle, a seaport rebelled against local authority 

  • Captured the royal french fleet

  • Invited england to intervene on their behalf

• La rochelle was besieged and surrendered after one year of siege

• Lost:

  • its fortifications

  • the right to be exclusively Huguenot

  • its own law courts

• But Huguenot were not destroyed - toleration of Protestants was still confirmed alongside catholics

Control the Nobles

• The power of the nobles had grown during the religious wars in france. Richelieu sought to diminish noble power and independence. 

• He destroyed all noble private fortresses

• Outlaws Dueling (Traditional practive of setting noble honour

• Disciplined those who broke the law (ex.. Excecutied the partiest of a duel involving two of France’s oldest noble families.

• Did not hire high ranking nobles for government jobs in the administration

• Niblessse de robe (newly enobled) vs noblesse d’epee (High nobles

• They hired the new nobles

• Instituted the use of Intendants as a centralizing mechanism over the province - Originally the intendant was a minor crown official sent to a region, but this position was made more powerful by Richelieu. It became a de facto governor of a region, appropiating many of the powers held by old noble families. The intendant was loyal to the king

Other Policies

• Use spies to find the enemies of the corwn

• Controlled Parlement (sovereign courts who apprive the king’s taxes - not parliment), an institution staffed by nobles

• Increased taxes on the peasantry

• “When the people are too comfortable it is impossible to keep them within the bounds of their duty… they must be compared to muled which being used to burdens are spiled more by rest than labor” (Political testament)

The Effect of Richelieu’s Policies

• Esbalished national unity and greatness, especially after the Thirty Years war

  • Broke the threat of Habsburd encirclement of France.

  • France emerged as a great power in international relations

• Created an absolute monarchy

  • Centralized the government of France

  • Richelieu laid the foundations for the practice of royal absolutisim

 The Theory of Divine Right Kingship

• On earth, there is nothing higher than kings, except god

• The king rules by divine right, as is not responsible to any human authority

• Traditionall y the king is the source and dispenser of justice and can give laws on to the subjects - doesnt need a court

• Seen as a father figure, who was to exercise power with benevolence.

The Theory of Absolutisim: Jaques Benigne Bossuet (1627-1704)

• Bishop or Meaux

• Tutor to children of Louis XIV - the greatest practitioner of absilutisim in Europe

• Bossuet’s Treatise on Politics Based on the Very words of Holy Writ

• Divine rights of kinds and god appointed duties of kings

Bossuet’s Treatise on Politics Based on the Very words of Holy Writ

• Royal authority

  • Sacred - emanated from god

  • Paternal - reflects god’s power which is paternal

  • Abolute - concentrated in the person of the king and not shared with any earthly body

  • Subject to reason - all of this can be understood by human reason, it is reasonable

Bossuet’s Treatise on Politics

Kings are ministers of god - appointed by god and are divine and sacred

• Subjects but obey and serve the king

• The king protects good and punishes evil, and even if that king himself is bad, he still must be obeyed

Duties of a King 

• Must not use power in an arbitrary manner, but for the public good

• Not responsible to an earthly power but must account to god for their actions

Royal authority is Paternal

• Gods power is paternal, emanates from his role as the creator of the universe and of mankind

• The king is like a father, and must use his power for good

• His power is absolute: it must be invincible for the stability and order of the state

• The king is the state and the will of the people

Louis XIV - The Sun King (1643-1715)

First Phase of His Reign

• 1643-1661 - Inherits the throne at age 4

• Anne of austria, his mother rules as regent

• Mazarun was head ofthe Regency Council and advisor to Louis XIV to 1661

• The Frinde = Noble revolt, “The slingshot” “tumults” - the nobles want more power

• 1648-9: Lead by nobles of the robe

• 1650-2: Lead by nobles of the sword

Second Phase of His Reign

• 1661-1683: His personal rule began at 23

• The king was supreme executive - no representative bodies like a parliment existed in france

• Reoganized governemt - kin was to be all powerful, and nobles were diverted to wold of pomp and ceremony at the court

• There were no nobles in High Council - stagged by men of merit

• The powers of the Intendant as a provincial governor were enhanced

• Spendor 

• Jean baptise Colver (1619-1683) - finance minister of Louis XIV who ensured economic solvency and centralization

Third phase of his reign

• 1683-1715 - decline

• Revocation of the Edict of Nates, 1685

  • Expelled all Huguenots from france

  • Roman Catholicism was the only legal religion in france, and Protestenatism was outlawed, forbidden and punishable by death

  • 200k Huguenots left France

Louis XIV’s Dysnasty Extends to Spain

• In 1700, the king of spain, Charles II died, leaving 2 possible heirs

  1. Phillip of Anjou (Louis XIV’s grandson who was married into the spanish dynasty)

  2. The austrian emperor Leopold’s granson

• Phillip was named the successor. Named Phillip V of Spain

• This extended French international control over Spain and all it’s colonies

• Also, the French Bourbon dynasty was established in Spain instead of the Habsburgs

Absolutisim in practice

• Most rulers of continental Europe worked to extend their power based on the model by Louis XIV. They had to have spring dynasties and a centralized government bureaucracy

• Increased taxes, to be paid by the commoners

• They established large standiung armies

• The ruler was not responsible to representative bodies

• Tied to establish control over religion in his realm

• As a result: more sovierign states were established as powerful

Lecture: The European Mind: The Scientific Revoloution of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

Natural Philosiphy - Science

• New Revoloutionary world view - literal science

• Established the heliocentric view of the universe in contradiction to the accepted geocentric model.

• Developed a new physics that fit the new heliocentric view of the universe

• The scientific method is developed

Medieval Cosmology

• Old Geocentric View of the univers

• Aristotle and Ptolemyn

• Christian Theology was blende with ancient greek theories

• The thought that the earth was the centre of the universe

• The sun moved around them, an “obvious fact” that anyone could observe

Aristoteian Cosmology

• Thought circles were perfect. Thought the universe was a sphere with the earth at the center

• The moon the sun and the 7 planets revolved aroun the earth

• There was a prime mover, the cause of movement, a divine principle.  And an upper and lower region divided by the lunar sphere

• The celestial vs terrestrial region..

Claudius Ptoley -  the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic Cosmology

• Ptolemy wrote the Algamest - book outlining his views of the universe

• Agreed with Aristotle;

  • The Motionless heavy earth was at the centre of the universe. 

  • The moon and sun and the 7 planets used clear crystalline spheres to move aroumd the earth in perfect circles.

• This view dominates the western view of the cosmos for another 2000 years womp.

Ptolemy’s Epicycles

• Ptolemy tried to accounfd for the apparent irregular movementof the planets when viewed from the stationary earth, which contradicted te theory of planetary movement in perfect circles. 

• The planets seemed to stopn and loop backwards

• Came up with the theory of epicycles to account for the irregularity - a second orbit

• Its cause he couldn’t admit that the earth moved.

Medieval Cosmology

• Accepted the AP model and adapted to christian theology

• Gofd is the first cause of all phenomena

• The earth was imperfect, but god made up for it by making it the center of the universe.

• The earth was central because here christ lived and died for mankinds redemption

• THe planets were made of aether (air and fire)

• The 8th sphere contained the fixed stars, the 9th gave motion to the 8th and the heavens and god were beyond the 10th

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Proposed a heliocentric vbuiew of the universe and it was not accepted because of Aristotles’s great authority. 

• Was later revived by renaissance hiumanists. 

• Was afraid to publish his findings (On the revolutions of heavenly spheres) 

• Book claims that earth wasnt the cebter of the universe, and that the sun circles every 365 days.

• In the new movement where the sun was the center, the other irregularities disappeared

Copernicus: Implications

• Believed that he had understood ghods design of the universe, but it contradicted the bible. So martin luther came after him

Tycho Brahe

• Danish Nobleman

• On the New Star (1572)

  • Obsesved a new star, and realized that the heavens were not unchanging. 

• Danish king have hu the island of Hven in the danish sound, where he buit a castle and observatory

• Concluded there were no crystalline spheres. An also observed the path of a comet. \

• Retained the concept that earth did not move, and was orbiyefd by the moon and sun

Johannes Kepler

• Was Brahe’s assistant under the Emporer

• Took over his position when he died.

• Kepler had already publdshrf Mysterium Cosmographicum which assumed a heliocentric view of the universe

• Kepl3er supported the copernicum view with Brahe’s findings,

• Thought that orbits were elliptical and not circular

• Kepler made 3 laws of planetary motion. 

• He also argues that magnetic attractions between the sun and planets keep the planets in orbit

Galileo

• Used new tech: a telescope (Didn’t invent it) but he improved the magnification

• Found that jupiter had moons. (debunked AP theory)

• Found that the moon had craters, and was clearly not made of aether

• Found the Sun had spots and turned on its axis. It is not perfect as the AP model suggested

• Found that heavenly bodies do change and that they are not perfect. THere was no higher and lower spheres. 

• There were more stars than previously known, which meant that the universe was much larger than they thought

• But galileo still believed in circular orbits (not eliptical)

Galileo and the Church

• Wrote The starry messenger (1610), and Letters on sunspots (1613)

• Cardinal Robert Bellarmine was a jesuit who warned galileo not to support copernicum

• IN response, Galileo published in a letter to the grand duchess Christine de Medici (1615)

• Theologians should reconcile their interpretation of the buble with the new findings and  conclusions on natural philosophy. 

• The church’s role was to tell us how to get to heavan, not how it works. 

• Then - Copernicus’s book was placed on the forbidden b ook index. 

• HGalileo compiled work for the next 10 years, and then published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems - Ptolemaic and copernican

• There was a character - Simplicio who believed in the AP model, and it was thought to be a caricature of the pope

Galileo and the Inquisition

• Interrogated 3 times

• Had to disavow his science or die 

• He went under house arrest for the rest of his life

Issac Newton: 

• Completed the work of astronomy and such

• Using observation and natural date to explain natural phenomena

• Came up with those 3 laws of motion

The MechanistivC View of the Universe

• The world began to believe that the world was purely mathematical and not just chaotic

• Everything operates in accordancve with universal laws.

• This would be revised with einstimes concept of relativityin the 20th century 

The Scientific Methods

• The shift from the ancient and medival view to the moden

• New scientific methods allow man to discover more and more about nature and control it

• New way of thinking: Empiricism -  basically the scientific method

• Seperation of religion and science

New Science and Religion

• Natural philosiphers dsid belive in hofd, but as time science and theology become two different fields

Lecture: The Age of Reasoin or the Enlightenment of the 18th c

The Age of Reason

• Intellecual and philosophical movement

• 1650-1700 and beyond

• European but also spread to the americas

• Inspired:

  • The american Revlotion 

  • The French Revolution

  • The Latin American Revoloutions

Legacy of ther Scientific Revoloution

• The Enlightenment wouldt be possible without the intellectual basis of the Scientific Revoloution

• Man is capable of understanding nature and through reason, man can improve the human condition

Philosihoes

• Believed the role of philosophy was to change the world, and to increase happiness. 

• Literally just believed in common sense, and that was literally the centrality of the enliughtment. 

• Dared to voice a natural criticism of the world they live in (the old regime world)

The Light of Reason

• Translated from french - “The light” - basically justy refers to the usage of reason

• Philosiphes often became propagandists who sought to publucuse the idea of reason and its implications. 

• “Light into the dark corners of the mind”

Dumarsais “Philosophe”

• Durmarsais himself Connects the word to reason and free dom from constrictive traditions and authority

• Says that reason is to the philosopher is what grace is to a christian

• Pronmotes Empiricisim and the scientific method.

• AAgainst accepted truths, authority, nd innate ideas

• The philosopher wishes to please others and to make himself useful

• The philosopher is a humanitarian and wiorships and loves civil society

• The eradication of fanatasicim and superstition, passions, and anger.

• They often conversed in salons and such.

The Salon and the Solonnieres

• There werent many female philiosopjhes buyt they patrcipated in the intellectual movementby hosting salons 

• Informal gatherings where the inteelecuals met to socalize

• Eloped in the creation of the idea ofd an elightneed general public 

• Provded a model for French society as a whole.

General Characteristics of the Enlightenment

• Confidence in the powers of himan rason. As a heritage of the Scientific Revoliution

  • Human reason had discovered the laws of nature.

• Optimiso and the belief in himan progress through secular education

  • Think that the mind can go from a blank slate and become something more through education and experience.

• The organization of all knowledge in L’encyclopedie 

  • The two editors (a writer and a mathematician) would enlist thinkers to write articles

  • Only philosophers could write in it

  • Based only on reason and not any other stance

Encyclopedia, of classified dictionary of the sciences arts and trades

• TThe editors and such has to fight censorship from the church and the state - couldn’t write about how the french monarchy was opressive, so they use code words, and the public knew that it wasn’t literal, but that the french were being referenced

• Diderot

  • An article biblsihed in the encyclpdia with the goal of changing the general way of thinking

• There are articles on practical knowledge, and loftier subjects

• Thman was the center of the acknowledge presented, 

• The goal was to change the common mode of thinking. 

• But it couldnt be too complex, and accessible. 

Critique of Established Religion

• Important feature, cause churches promoted superstisipn, fanaticism, intolerance, the opposite of the stance guided by the light of reason

• The emphasis should be on this eathly life, not on the afterlife,

• Many philosophers promoted a religious philisophy called Deism

• You can only judge what is real and ifront of them and there. They still believed in god it as just different

Deisim:

• As a result of the scientific revboloution, many philosiphes believed that nature was rational and order, governed by laws and principles that one could discover using himan reason. The creator of man (god) must also be rational.

• The rational god hads ro be worshipped through a religion that was rational too. 

• A combination of religion and reason 

• Then, Deisim was based around the core belief that god exists and we may see his imprint or reflection in nature

• God created the universe and then allowed it to run according to it’s own natural laws. God did not grant grace, anser prayers, or perform miracles.

• Deissim held the belief in a life after death, deserved by good and humane behaviour on earth

• It was hoped that Deisim would he;p end fantasisim, and also end the rivalry between various christian religions. 

• Deisits didnt need clergy, who caused many of the problems in the existing church

Utilitarianism

• Since the philosiphes were now the leaders of established religion, they needed a method to decide what was good and bad/

• Turned to utility - a thing is good if it’s useful to humankind. 

• Promote reasonable goals - life happiness and freedom for all

• Any thing that would promote those goals was good

• The existing political stricture with tradtinal vaues was no longer acceptable. THis sustem resulted in mass misery and exploitation fir the benefit of the elites.

Enlightened absolutisim

• People thought the quickest was to spread the goals of the reform was for it to come fro the monarchy.

• The existing monarch would be enlightened, and then put it into reform. He is the law

• But this was mostly just a dream. There were a few enlightened despots, but their knowledge was still limited

• The enlightened reform was limited as it did  not challenge the power of nobility.

Constitutional monarchy

• Many philosophers thought the monarchy was not functioning properly because they were abusing their power and  tyrant. Wanted to reform the monarchty on the English model of a constitutional monarchy. The rule of a king with a parliament, a representative vosy of the wealthier subjects, he believed that the English constitution was based on a separation of powers,the executive, legislkative and jussucial branches that checked and balanced each other

• But france did not have a parliament, and such representative bodies had dallen into disuse. (the estates general who last met in 1614 and the parlement)

• Montesquieu an arsitocrat wanted to see an inredsed role for the french nobility in a role tha twuld curb the power of the absolute monarchy

The enlightenment exemplified bny voltaire and rousseau

• Voltaire was the most fabulous critic of the old regime, with a view to inspire and effect refotrm (not revolution) - bro suffered for his criticism aka beat up and jailed. He knew what was wrong with the worldf but didnt have a blueprint for a new society

• Rousseau - the most famous of the enlightenment. Argued that only a radical revolution would come to change society

Francious-marie arouet de Voltaire

• Son of a middle class norterty

• Youthful literary writings 

• Gentleman of the kings bedchamber and royal historiograpger, positions which have him financial independence.

• Lived at cirey with madame emile du chatelet ad then alone and fernet, near the border of switzerland. - so he could flee if anyone ever came to arrtest him

• He spent like 3 years in england and admired the constitution monarchy in england and studied newtonian science

• Saw the state funeral granted to Newton in 1727 at werstminster appey and wrote abook about his english experience - philosophical letters concerning the english nation. He believed that if newton was french his death would not of been nearly as respected and just buried with the prostitutes

Emile du chatelet

• Collaborated with voltaire to write elements of the Philosiphy of Newton a book about the natural philosophy of newton across continental europe

• Girly pop was a mathematician and early philosophe . she was one of the first to adopt the ideas of nreton, and translated newtons Principa, she was voltaures companion for 15 years before dying of childbirth in 1749

Voltairees candide

• Philisophical voel, satire of optimisim as propoimded by the german phlisoper leibniz

• Critique of old regine sociertyy 

• Bestseller, widely lead

• Pubnlushed in many protestant places (amsterdam, brussels, geneva, london and paris

• Went on the banned books list like 3 years after release

• The best possi l.e world contains some grief and sufferering that will result in a greater good

• Leibniz is reprezented by rhe fictional character pangloss: all is for the ebest in the best of possible worlds because it was created bt god

Voltaire citisized as unreasonable

• The prestige of the nobility 

• War (inhuman and cruel - unheard of judegement of the time)

• Slavery

• The maral lazirt of people as inhumane and greedy

• Religious intolerance

• Clerical hypocrisy (gluttonous monks, gay people)\

• The general corruption of the chiursch and it’s clergy

• Attack on leibnisx and his optimisim

Candide the beginning of the story

• Westphalia (western germany) castle of the Baron of Thunder-ten-tronch

• Candide - a illegitimate child of the barons sister by a nobleman who was not good enough to marry because his noble lineage could be traced back only 2000 years. (ridicule of nobility)

• Candide qand the barons children son and daughter were educated by the tutor, pangloss, the oracle of the household

• There cannot be an effect without a cause and this is the best of all posible worlds, and the barons castle was the best of all castles. 

• Candide gets kicked out of the castle for being in love withsineones daughter

• Pangloss is a beggar, with a nowe rottingf off

• Candidde and pangloss are reunited and exchange news

• Pangloss tells candidde that the bungar army dwvastated the castle of the thunder tehn tronch/ cunegonde was raped for sone reason and the barons ead was smashed and the baroness was but to buts, and raped - basically just critiquing if this ireally is the mowt perfect world

• Panhloss answered that the reason for hst state was love, hew was infected sith syphilis by a maid and the castle named paquette. 

• Critique of why is there so muche vil in the world if its the best possible world god cpuldf have made

Criticism of the church

• Pangliss and candide get in t rouble and are accused of heracy

• Theyu are pimished in an act of fauther. Candide was dlogged and pangloss is hanged

Candide concludes that the best of possible worlds is impossible:

• Candide would recover and go look for the (very dead) barons daughter

• Confcludedd t best of possible world doesnt reallyt exist because it had to defy natural laws. 

• The belief in optimism doesnt rly make sense, and seems to be wrong, distance, and separated from the real world,

• Candide decided to abandon philosophy and instead dedicated himsdelf to pragmaytisim where he cpnoclied tha the best thing is ti cultivate ones carden

Ultimately voltaire sought social reform and accepted the existing social order

Saw peasants as children in need of parental control and afreed with the basic precept that they werea lesser race

Rousseau 

• Born in geneva

• Wanted to study music but became part of the philospe circes and liked the solitude

• Wrote a social contract at 50. Advocated democracy and denied the divine right of kings.

• Ideas reflect changes going pnm im e3uropea society. Tje population explosion in the indiustrealization.

• Tousseaui expressed a positive view of mam, ordinary man, the simpler, the more virtuous he was. 

Exponential population increase

Rousseau wrote the socia contract in response to absolutisim

• [rp[osed that te government shold ne directly responsible to the will of the people expresseed by the “general will” - they could revoke the contract in case the government acted otherwise

• Rousseau thinks that free is a state of nature. And that people need to reclaim that freedom

• Says that man is born free, but everywhere is in chains

• Idea that of people dont unify they wont get their freedom

• The social contract surrender all their rights to the whole community

• Everyone goes under the supreme direction of the general will, or the will of the community. This is the creation fof a moral and collective body with unity and common identity its life and its will.

• Te community “sovreign” - the sovereign cannot hts it’s member parts it’s governed by the general will or the common good or the communal conscience which is best for the community, 

• The general will cannot make mistakes. It acts on the welfare for the whole. People cannot disagree with the whole

• The laws xof the state should coincide with the general will, laws would serve the common good. 

rousseau 

• note that rousseau dsifjatef the body politic as sovereign

• rousseau was the most fangeoid to the world of the old regime

• he challenged the power of kings

• his ideas were brought up to justify the most radical things during the french revolution

LECITE: Conclusion, the beginning of the french revolution 

• the events of the french revolution are usu