Anthropological_Theory-42-56

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) defined culture or civilization as:
- "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
The condition of culture among various societies can be investigated on general principles to study laws of human thought and action.
Two great principles:
- Uniformity in civilization due to uniform action of uniform causes.
- Various grades as stages of development or evolution, each shaping future history.

Modern investigators recognize unity of nature, fixity of its laws, and definite sequence of cause and effect.
They affirm the Pythagorean doctrine of pervading order in the universal Kosmos.
They agree with Aristotle that nature is not full of incoherent episodes like a bad tragedy.
They agree with Leibniz:
- "Nature never acts by leaps" (La nature n'agit jamais par saut).
- Nothing happens without sufficient reason.

Applying scientific ideas to the higher processes of human feeling and action (thought, language, knowledge, art) is met with resistance.
The world is scarcely prepared to accept the study of human life as a branch of natural science.
Many educated minds resist the idea that human history is part of natural history.
They resist the notion that thoughts, wills, and actions accord with laws as definite as those governing waves, chemical combinations, and plant/animal growth.

Many would accept a science of history if presented with definite principles and evidence, but reject systems that fall short of a scientific standard.
Resistance to novelty serves against speculative dogmatism.
Metaphysics and theology present obstacles to investigating laws of human nature.
The popular notion of free human will involves:
- Freedom to act according to motive.
- Power of breaking loose from continuity and acting without cause.
- This view is incompatible with scientific argument.
Definition of human will according to motive is the only possible scientific basis for such inquiries.

Definite and natural cause determines human action to a great extent.
Physical science successfully seeks laws of nature on this basis.
Real difficulties in studying human life are the complexity of evidence and imperfection of observation methods.
People act according to this view of definite law, even when opposing it abstractly.
Experience leads people to believe there is a reason for everything in life.

True philosophy of history extends and improves methods of plain people who form judgments upon facts.
One event is always the son of another; we must never forget the parentage.
Historians aim to show not merely succession but connection among events.
They strive to elicit general principles of human action, assuming the existence of a philosophy of history.
Boswell's response to Johnson: "Then, sir, you would reduce all history to no better than an almanac."
The complexity of problems before the general historian has brought history only to the threshold of science.

Philosophy of history explaining the past and predicting the future by general laws is a subject difficult to cope with.
Departments like culture (knowledge, religion, art, custom) are more accessible.
Task of investigation lies within a more moderate compass.
Evidence is more simply classified and compared.
Power of getting rid of extraneous matter and treating each issue on its own set of facts makes closer reasoning more available.

Phenomena of culture can be classified and arranged, stage by stage, in a probable order of evolution.
Mankind displays similarity and consistency of phenomena.
General likeness in human nature and circumstances of life.
Comparison of races near the same grade of civilization is especially fitting.
Little respect need be had for date in history or place on the map.
Ancient Swiss lake-dweller may be set beside the medieval Aztec, and the Ojibwa of North America beside the Zulu of South Africa.

An Ethnological Museum shows how true a generalization this really is.
Edged and pointed instruments include hatchet, adze, chisel, knife, saw, scraper, awl, needle, spear and arrow-head.
Savage occupations: wood-chopping,