Psychology: Themes and Variations, 11e - Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology

Chapter 1: The Evolution of Psychology

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

  • 01.01 Summarize Wundt’s contributions to psychology and describe the chief tenets of structuralism and functionalism.

  • 01.02 Articulate Freud’s principal ideas and why they inspired controversy.

  • 01.03 Trace the development of behaviorism and assess Watson’s impact on the evolution of psychology.

  • 01.04 Summarize Skinner’s key insights and explain the emergence of humanism and its underlying philosophy.

  • 01.05 Discuss how historical events contributed to the emergence of psychology as a profession.

  • 01.06 Describe two trends emerging in the 1950s–1960s that represented a return to psychology’s intellectual roots.

  • 01.07 Explain why Western psychology has shown an increased interest in cultural variables in recent decades.

  • 01.08 Discuss the emergence and basic ideas of evolutionary psychology and positive psychology.

  • 01.09 Discuss the growth of psychology and identify the most common work settings for contemporary psychologists.

  • 01.10 List and describe the major research areas and professional specialties in psychology.

  • 01.11 Understand the text’s three unifying themes relating to psychology as a field of study.

  • 01.12 Understand the text’s four unifying themes relating to psychology’s subject matter.

  • 01.13 Discuss some strategies for promoting adequate study, improving reading comprehension, and getting more out of lectures.

  • 01.14 Explain the nature of critical thinking and evaluate evolutionary explanations for gender differences in spatial abilities.

Unit 1: Psychology’s Early History
A New Science Is Born: William Wundt

  • William Wundt is widely characterized as the founder of psychology.

  • In 18791879, he established the first formal laboratory of psychological research at the University of Leipzig, a landmark event christened as psychology’s “date of birth.”

  • He also established the first journal devoted to publishing research on psychology.

Structuralism Versus Functionalism

  • Structuralism

    • Defined as a school of psychology that analyzes consciousness into its basic elements and investigates how these elements are related.

    • Relies on introspection, which is the careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience, to examine the contents of consciousness.

  • Functionalism

    • Defined as a school of psychology based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.

    • Influenced by William James.

    • Also analyzed consciousness into “elements” but focused on why they exist and what they do.

Freud Brings the Unconscious into the Picture: Sigmund Freud

  • Sigmund Freud’s approach originated from his efforts to treat mental disorders.

  • His work led him to hypothesize the existence of the unconscious.

    • The unconscious consists of thoughts, memories, and desires residing well below the surface of conscious awareness.

    • These unconscious elements exert a great influence on behavior.

  • He developed psychoanalytic theory, an attempt to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior. This theory was often controversial due to its focus on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences.

Watson Alters Psychology’s Course as Behaviorism Makes Its Debut: John B. Watson

  • Behaviorism

    • A theoretical premise asserting that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.

    • Founded by John B. Watson.

    • Behavior is defined as any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism.

  • John Watson’s view of nature vs. nurture

    • Argued that individuals are “made, not born,” emphasizing the role of the environment.

    • Discounted the importance of heredity.

    • Maintained that behavior is governed entirely by the environment.

Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviorism Flourishes: B. F. Skinner

  • B. F. Skinner’s view of behaviorism

    • Contended that internal mental events cannot be studied scientifically and are unnecessary for explaining behavior.

    • Believed that all behavior is fully governed by external stimuli.

    • Asserted that behavior is determined in predictable ways by lawful principles, similar to how the flight of an arrow is governed by the laws of physics.

    • Maintained that individuals are controlled by their environment, not by themselves.

    • Concluded that free will is an illusion.

The Humanists Revolt

  • Humanism

    • A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans.

    • Highlights human freedom and their potential for personal growth.

    • Humanists argue that people are not merely pawns of their animal heritage or environmental circumstances.

    • They believe that because humans are fundamentally different from other animals, research on animals has little relevance to understanding human behavior.

  • Famous humanists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Unit 2: Psychology’s Modern History
Psychology Comes of Age as a Profession

  • The first applied arm of psychology to achieve prominence was clinical psychology.

    • Clinical psychology is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

  • Today, the broad umbrella of applied psychology covers a variety of professional specialties, including:

    • School psychology

    • Industrial/organizational psychology

    • Counseling psychology

Psychology Returns to Its Roots: Renewed Interest in Cognition and Physiology

  • Cognition

    • Defined as the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.

    • Cognitive theorists argue that psychology must include the study of internal mental events to fully understand human behavior.

    • Many observers consider the cognitive approach to have become the dominant perspective in contemporary psychology.

Psychology Broadens Its Horizons: Increased Interest in Cultural Diversity

  • Two recent trends have prompted Western psychologists to incorporate cultural factors into their theories and research:

    • Advances in communication, travel, and international trade have “shrunk” the world, increasing global interdependence and bringing more Americans and Europeans into contact with non-Western cultures.

    • The ethnic makeup of the Western world has become an increasingly diverse multicultural mosaic.

Psychology Adapts: The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology

  • Evolutionary psychology

    • A theoretical perspective that examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for a species over the course of many generations.

    • Evolutionary psychologists assert that the patterns of behavior seen in a species are products of evolution, just like anatomical characteristics.

Psychology Moves in a Positive Direction: Positive Psychology

  • Positive psychology

    • An approach that uses theory and research to better understand the positive, adaptive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existence.

    • It has three main areas of interest:

      • Positive subjective experiences (e.g., happiness, joy, love)

      • Positive individual traits (e.g., courage, compassion, integrity)

      • Positive institutions and communities (e.g., strong families, supportive workplaces)

Unit 3: Psychology Today: Vigorous and Diversified
Definition and Characteristics

  • Psychology is defined as the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior, as well as the profession that applies this accumulated knowledge to practical problems.

  • Contemporary psychology is a thriving science and profession and a multifaceted field.

Professional Specialties in Psychology

  • Psychiatry

    • A branch of medicine involving the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

    • Psychiatrists are medical doctors and can prescribe medication.

  • Clinical psychology

    • In contrast to psychiatry, clinical psychology non-medically diagnoses and treats psychological problems and disorders.

  • Other principal professional specialties include school psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, and counseling psychology.

Unit 4: Seven Unifying Themes
Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study

  • Theme 1: Psychology Is Empirical

    • Empiricism: Knowledge should be acquired through observation.

  • Theme 2: Psychology Is Theoretically Diverse

    • Theory: A system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.

  • Theme 3: Psychology Evolves in a Sociohistorical Context

    • Sociohistorical: Society and history impact psychology, meaning the field develops and changes in response to societal shifts and historical events.

Themes Related to Psychology’s Subject Matter

  • Theme 4: Behavior Is Determined by Multiple Causes

    • Explains that behavior is complex and rarely attributable to a single factor.

  • Theme 5: Behavior Is Shaped by Cultural Heritage

    • Culture: The widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions, and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across generations.

  • Theme 6: Heredity and Environment Jointly Influence Behavior

    • Emphasizes the interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental factors in shaping behavior.

  • Theme 7: People’s Experience of the World Is Subjective

    • Individuals perceive and interpret information based on their unique experiences, biases, and expectations.

Unit 5: Personal Application
Developing Sound Study Habits

  • Set up a schedule for studying.

  • Find a place to study where you can concentrate.

  • Reward your studying to reinforce the habit.

Improving Your Reading

  • Preview reading assignments section by section.

  • Work hard to actively process the meaning of information.

  • Strive to identify the key ideas of each paragraph.

  • Carefully review the key ideas after each section.

Getting More out of Lectures

  • Extracting information from lectures requires active listening.

  • Read ahead on the scheduled subject in your text.

  • Take notes in your own words, which aids comprehension and retention.

  • When taking notes, pay attention to clues about what is important (e.g., repetition, emphasis, visual cues).

  • Organize your notes using the lecture outline.

  • Revise your notes after class to fill in gaps and clarify points.

Unit 6: Critical Thinking Application
Critical Thinking Skills

  • Understand and use the principles of scientific investigation.

  • Apply the rules of formal and informal logic.

  • Think effectively in terms of probabilities.

  • Carefully evaluate the quality of information.

  • Analyze arguments for the soundness of the conclusions.

Critical Thinking Example: Gender Differences in Spatial Abilities

  • Observation: Gender differences in spatial abilities exist, with males tending to perform better than females on visual-spatial tasks.

  • Evolutionary theory explanation: Suggests that gender differences result from the sex-division of labor in ancient societies.

  • Applying critical thinking: When encountering such explanations, one should:

    • Ask: Are there alternative explanations for these observed differences?

    • Ask: Are there data that run counter to the evolutionary explanation?

    • This involves questioning assumptions and exploring other potential factors (e.g., cultural, educational) that might influence spatial abilities.