Latin America in the 20th Century

Industrialization and Social Change (1914-1945)

  • Latin America began to industrialize, importing technology for textile production to make coffee sacks for export.
  • This led to the development of a textile industry alongside coffee sack production.
  • Social Effects:
    • A middle, managerial class emerged, distinct from the oligarchs.
    • This class became prosperous enough to send their children to college, which led to political disruption and protests.
    • A working class developed, influenced by Marxism.
    • Rebellions arose against historically exploitative conditions, reminiscent of coercion on haciendas.

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1921)

  • Coincided with the Russian Revolution and World War I, illustrating a clustering of revolutions during times of global crisis.
  • Background:
    • Porfirio Diaz: Dominated Mexican politics from 1876 to 1911 as a repressive modernizer.
    • Forced modernization on the Mexican population using the state.
    • Relied heavily on foreign capital, especially American, to fund modernization efforts.
    • Oil was discovered in abundance, complicating Mexico's relationship with the global economy.
  • Key Figures and Events:
    • 1910: Francisco Madero, a liberal, challenged Diaz in an election.
    • Madero was imprisoned and called for a revolt from prison.
    • Northern Revolt: Led by Pancho Villa, a bandito who raided both sides of the Rio Grande (including the U.S.), creating a crisis and prompting American intervention.
    • Southern Revolt: Led by Emiliano Zapata from Oaxaca, a traditional peasant rebellion seeking land reform.
    • Diaz was driven out; Madero gained power but was assassinated (with American involvement suspected).
    • Victoriano Huerta established a short-lived military rule.
    • Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and Alvaro Obregon led a revolt against Huerta, leading to the Constitution of 1917.
  • Factors Undermining Huerta:
    • His installation was facilitated by Americans.
    • American invasion to root out Pancho Villa.
  • Constitution of 1917:
    • Addressed pre-revolution social conditions, which included an oligarchic structure, a large class of landless laborers (peons), and urbanization/industrialization due to forced modernization.
  • Effects of the Revolution:
    • The constitution aimed to liberate peons and establish land reform, creating a country of prosperous peasants, at least temporarily.
    • Land reform allowed settlement on undeveloped land, entitling settlers to its produce.
    • Peasants gained autonomy compared to the exploitable peons, even if it was a step back from modernity.
    • No indemnity was required for their freedom.
    • Foreign ownership was limited, making oil a national reserve.
    • Workers' rights were guaranteed, legalizing unions and giving workers a stake in the state.
    • Clerical education was limited due to the Church's historically conservative role.
    • The constitution led to one-party dominance in Mexico from 1934 to 1985.
    • President Lazaro Cardenas nationalized oil reserves and pursued corporatist and populist policies.

Latin America During World War II

  • Latin American countries responded with mixed policies, many turning towards neofascist approaches.
  • In Brazil, Getulio Vargas implemented a nationalistic populist agenda with industrialization through tariffs, using anti-immigrant sentiments to achieve one-party rule. Movement towards third ways.

US Foreign Policy

  • The Good Neighbor Policy: FDR tried to shift from the "big stick" approach to business links, creating closer commercial partnerships.
  • The Cold War: Hardened American attitudes due to fears of revolution and the spread of communism.
    • America undermined more democracies than it created.
    • Supported strong military leaders loyal to American interests.
    • "Dirty wars" became characteristic of social relationships.

Guatemala as an Example

  • 1944: Juan Jose Arevalo, a reformer describing himself as a spiritual socialist, was elected and pursued tax and land reform.
  • He was succeeded by Jacobo Arbenz, who was emboldened in his agenda.
  • Land Reform: Became problematic with the United Fruit Company, a major landholder.
  • 1954: The CIA sponsored a coup to topple Arbenz, leading to a military government until 1989.
  • Effects of the Coup:
    • Land reform was halted.
    • The military targeted Native American groups and radicals.
    • The "White Hand" death squad was formed to purge radicals, serving as a model for other death squads in Latin America.
  • Post-Military Junta (1989):
    • Civil society was restored by 1991.
    • In 1996, a truth and reconciliation commission investigated state crimes, revealing genocidal actions against indigenous populations.
    • The U.S. sponsored the coup because of interests in companies like the United Fruit Company.

Cuban Revolution

  • Social Divisions: Large urban-rural divide, with a middle class in resort cities and a poor population in rural plantation economies.
  • Major industries: Tobacco, sugar, and tourism.
  • Cuba under the shadow of America influencing its politics.
  • Fulgencio Batista was an authoritarian leader known for corruption who previously established dominance over Cuban polictics.
  • Fidel Castro, trained as a lawyer and a leftist, emerged as a revolutionary leader.
  • 1953: Castro began his struggle and was imprisoned then exiled to Mexico.
  • In Mexico, he recruited revolutionaries, including Che Guevara and preparing for the revolution.
  • Revolutionary Actions:
    • Castro reinvaded Cuba, building support in the countryside and moving towards the cities.
    • Victory was achieved in January 1959.
  • UN General Assembly: Castro used the assembly to establish Cuba as aligned with Soviet policies, leading to the Bay of Pigs invasion.
  • Bay of Pigs invasion: Failed CIA-organized invasion by Cuban exiles.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis: Brinksmanship emerged due to the Cuban Revolution.
  • Social Impacts of the Cuban Revolution:
    • Significant improvements in education, healthcare, and housing.
    • Reduced poverty.
    • Cuba became a major exporter of doctors.
  • Fidel Castro: Often described as a popular dictator, with tangible benefits for many Cubans.
  • Intolerance toward dissent (especially religious dissent) defined his state as authoritarian.
  • America's response: Imposed an embargo, causing a "time warp" with old cars and a shift from ornamental gardens to food production.
    • Limited political and civil rights were apparent

Democratization and Neoliberalism (Post-Cold War)

  • End of the Cold War ushered in democratization and neoliberalism.
  • Democratization: Consequence of America relaxing its posture, leading to revived civil societies and democratic elections.
  • A leftward turn in politics then shifted to populism and potential fascism.
  • Neoliberalism: Most important impact in Mexico with NAFTA. In latin America, there has been considerable contested elections.
  • NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement):
    • Created a free trade zone between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico with no tariffs.
    • Allowed American corporations to extend production into Mexico.
    • Mexico was forced to abandon land reform because Land became a commodity, leading to peasants being driven from their land by foreign investors seeking avocado farms, this results in an increased number of immigrants to migrate to america.

Neoliberalism Defined

  • Neoliberalism: A revival of old liberal theory, emphasizing free markets and a free exchange of ideas.
  • Aims to unencumber capitalism from regulation and taxes to drive economic prosperity.
  • Social Consequences: Peasant displacement and migration.