Germany
German Foreign Policy 1933-40
Hitler and Nazi Germany 1933-8
1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and was soon the head of a single-party state
1938, he took total control of the state
Hitler and the Consolidation of Power 1933-8
there was a merger between the Nazi Party and the government through gleichschaltung (1933-1934): policy meaning “making the same”
all other parties other than the Nazi party was abolished
all labour unions were abolished
all governing councils and governors were replaced by nazi-party appointed officials
all police forces being merged with the SS (Schutzstaffel, a Nazi paramilitary group that later functioned as the state police and operated a large part of the German economy)
during this time, Hitler consolidated his own power by having party rivals executed in 1934
only the Germany army was now out of his control which was managed by the conservative nobility
army officers say Hilter (an Austrian) as a foreigner and a politician who could not be trusted
Hitler took control of the army in 1938
Nazi Germany’s Economy 1933-9
new policies to deal with the Great Depression were generated
October 1933, Germany would trade with countries that would purchase Germany goods of equal value to what Germany importanted from that country
ie. if Romania wanted Germany wanted to purchase their oil/wheat they would first purchase an equivalent amount of German industrial goods
The “New Plan”
1934, the new economic plan was expanded on by the German Minister of Economics, Hjalmar Schacht
this gave the Germany government more control over the economy, dictating what could and could not be imported
Schacht’s plan meant that Germany
Germany imported 284 million marks worth of materials and products more than it exported in 1934
exported 111 million markes more than imported 1935
exported 550 million marks more than it imported in 1936
Germany’s economy recovered more rapidly that any other European state in the Great Depression
the success this plan meant cheaper food prices in Germany, more money to purchase raw materials that could be used for rearmament, massively increased trade with central and eastern European states → they became more dependent on Germany for their prosperity and economic stability
The Four Year Plan 1936-9
Schacht was pressured to allow the purchase and use of more raw materials such as iron and coal to produce aircraft, tanks, guns, and ammunition, etc.
Schacht resisted, he believed that this policy would wreck Germany’s improving economy
Schacht then resigned as minister in November 1937
September 1936, the government announced the Four Year Plan which was led by Hermann Goering
this plan aimed to
increase agricultural production
achieve self-sufficiency in production of raw material
continue strict government regulation of imports and exports
increase military production at the expense of consumer production
Historians such as Richard Overy state that this plan was enacted to prepare Germany for some wort of war
this plan indicates that Germany’s government believed that it was vulnerable to blockade and embargoes of raw materials
new emphasis was placed on creating substitutes of products such as rubber → synthetic oil, and synthetic rubber factories were given a priority in terms of construction
the Four Year Plan also meant that Germany was able to rapidly increase production of military equipment
there were far fewer goods for consumers to purchase though wages increased and unemployment decreased
this led to inflation
several historians believed that political pressure from workers and the economy was one of the major factors pushing Germany to war in 1939
Rearmament
Vulnerability After 1919
while Germany disarmed, its neighbours did not
Poland and up to 300 000 active soldiers and 700 000 in reserves
France had almost identical numbers on Germany’s western border
1912, France and Poland formed an alliance which called for each other in case the other was attacked
France created the Little Entente in 1920 and 1921 which included the promise of help from Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia
these two alliances had the ability to field millions of troops against Germany
Germany was required by a provision of the Treaty of Versailles to repay France and Belgium for damages from the First World War
1922, Germany announced that it was unable to continue payments
France and Britain invaded Germany in January 1923, occupying the Ruhr region → major industrial centre
this ended by 1925 → shows Germany’s vulnerability to invasion
many in Germany were also concerned with communism and the growing strength of the Soviet Union → this helped propel the Nazi party into power
World Disarmament Conference 1932
conference held by the League in Geneva, Switzerland which began in 1932, with the aim to reduce military sizes and weapons as a way to prevent future war
France refused to cooperate with disarmament talks unless Britain and the USA agreed to guarantee its security though an alliance but both countries refused
Germany declared that if France would not limit their military, Germany would not
Germany left the conference and withdrew from the League shortly after
Rearmament Begins
massive rearmament was announced in March 1935
introduction of conscription
construction of 2500 aircraft
expansion of navy
mass production of guns of all types, tanks and artillery
by 1936, Germany had the ability to produce 5 000 aircraft annually and by 1939 it had an army of 700 000 with 3 million more in reserves
International response to rearmament, April, 1935
Stresa Front
leaders of Britain, France, and Italy met in Stresa to respond to Hitlers violation of the Treaty of Versailles
all countries condemned Germany's plans to rebuild its military and promised to work together
each country had a different goal and had little ability to act militarily against Germany as a result of the Great Depression, so this initiative amounted to little
Hitler immediately assured these states of Germany’s peaceful intentions
Germany proposed non-aggression pacts with its neighbours and promised to observe the Locarno treaties
he also stated that Germany would accept limitations on armaments if other counties limited their war capabilities as well
France’s Response
France no longer saw Poland as reliable ally after Poland’s non-aggression pact with Germany (1934)
France wanted a stronger ally and since Britain refused, they turned to the Soviet Union
Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance (May 1935)
both would work through the League to ensure peace in Europe
each would come to the assistance of the other in case of attack by a third country
many conservatives in France feared communism more than Nazi Germany and through political pressure managed to ensure that no military discussions or plans were made between the Soviet Union and France
France built the maginot line: massive series of fortifications, tank barriers, trenches, barbed wire and walls along the border of Germany and France
Britain’s Response
the British government followed a strict policy of limited military spending after WWI
there was little political support for rearmament because that would increase taxation
the government did realize, however, that they would only be able to negotiate from a position of military strength, but it would take many years before that strength was at a point where they could defend themselves from Germany
rearmament began on a large scale → mass production of aircraft and warships but also expanding industrial capacity
the government focused on building the infrastructure needed for large-scale war production, such as increased railway lines, shipbuild facilities, factories, power plants and more
spending on rearmament increased by 600% between 1935-9 and it was projected that Britain would be at its strongest in relation to Germany in the autumn of 1939
Germany’s Foreign Policy 1933-5
Germany’s economic, political, and military weakness before 1935 meant that foreign policy was carefully considered
their economy was fragile but recovering
Hitler was still consolidating power over the government, his party, and the military
Nazism and Foreign Policy
nazism, mainly based on the beliefs and writings of Hitler, included many points
the Treaty should be completely undone
all germans should live in an expanded germany: pan-germanism
communism was a real threat to civilization and should be eradicated
germany must have lebensraum (living space) in eastern Europe for more food and land for settling
non-Germans were inferior racially to Germans, who were born to conquer and rule others
democratic states were fundamentally weak and greedy
during WWI, Germany defeated Russia and gained control of much of eastern Europe in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918
treaty between Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary in early 1918 in which Russia left the WWI turning over huge territories to Germany, Austria-Hungary that would include today’s countries of Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland
later this treaty was reversed by the nations that defeated Germany that same year
The Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact, January 1934
Poland was more powerful militarily that Germany in 1934
Polany was also allied to France and was fully aware that Germany wished to regain territories granted to Poland in the Treaty of Versailles
Poland believed that with its large army and alliance with France they had nothing to fear from Germany, but they also did not want to be drawn into a conflict with Germany in support of France
their main focus was also the Soviet Union
it had fought a successful war that ended in 1920, which had doubled the size of Poland
this agreement was made in which they stated that they would not attack the other for a period of ten years
it also led to
recognition by Germany of Poland’s borders
better diplomatic relations to discuss disputes
increased trade between the two states
for Germany, this treaty meant that they did not need to fear the Polish military
it also weakened the alliance between France and Poland → France could no longer assume that Poland was inherently hostile to Germany, which had been a threat to both states at that time
International Response: France
France was outraged
the alliance between France and Poland was weakened
France was reminded that Poland would pursue whatever policy was in its own interest without consulting France or regarding France’s needs
International Response: Soviet Union
the Soviet Union initially worked with Nazi Germany, although the Germany Communist Party had been abolished and most of its members were imprisoned and executed
1922, Germany and the Soviet Union signed Rapallo Treaty: renounced all claims against the other, recognized the other diplomatically and agreed to cooperate economically
the states started to cooperate militarily on a limited scale through weapon development and testing
Germany needed Soviet supplies such as wheat metals
the Soviets worked to maintain relations with Germany throughout 1933
made as a possible alliance between the two to oppose Poland and perhaps seize territories that both believe belonged to them
cooperation between the two states collapsed with the Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact
Poland and the Soviet Union had no diplomatic relations and considered each other their main enemy
Soviet joined the League after the pact was formed
they had previously condemned by the League as a tool for Britain and France to maintain their empires, now they sought to support the concept of collective security
Stalin ordered Comintern to alter its language and mission, instead of advocating revolution, it now promoted peace, democracy, and anti-fascit governments
communist group were ordered to cooperate with non-fascist political parties in order to oppose fascist groups and governments
this happened in Spain, France and other countries
the Soviet tried to build positive relationships with anti-communist dictatorships in Japan, Germany, and Italy, but they distrusted the Soviets and this did not work
Austria 1934
a goal of many in Austria and Germany was to unite them
perhaps because of the fact that Austria was Hitler’s homeland, by merging the two states he would be more German
Austria was politically divided, it experienced severe fighting between paramilitaries (military units that operate outside official control of a government) represented different political factions
many Austrians desired the stability that the Nazi Party had brought to Germany through Gleichschaltung
an Austrian branch of the Nazi Party had been active until it was banned in 1922
June 1934, Hitler met Mussolin and tried to convince him that Austria should became a German satellite state (state that is closely associated with another and is unable to act independently in many areas such as in economic or foreign policies)
Italy was a major political and military power which shared a longer border with Austria
Mussolini rejected this idea
Hilter gave the Austrian Nazis strong, unofficial encouragement to stage a coup a month later
during the failed coup, Austria’s head of state, Chancellor Engelbert Dolfuss, was assassinated
Mussolini was determined to keep Austria as a buffer state
he perhaps was also eager to demonstrate to Britain and France that Italy was a powerful and important ally
Mussolini mobilized troops on the Italian-Austrian frontier and forced Hitler to speak against the coup which failed
Saar Plebiscite 1935
Saar was a iron and coal rich region of Germany that bordered France which was placed under the administration of the League after WWI
France was allowed to operate and prosper from its coal mines as a means to compensate France for coal mines destroyed by Germany in northern France during the war
January 1935, Saar residents could vote to rejoin Germany, in which over 90% did
Anglo-German Naval Treaty, June 1935
Germany and Britain made the Anglo-German Naval Treaty
limit German navy to 35% the size of British
destroyed the Stresa Front
Germany’ Foreign Policy 1936-9
Remilitarization of the Rhineland, March 1936
large strip of German territory that border Belgium, France and Luxembourg
this zone was demilitarized at the end of WWI to create a buffer between Germany and its western neighbours
Germany saw this zone as a vulnerability as France could potentially invade Germany with no resistance until the French were deep into the country
being unable to control this territory was a national humiliation
December 1935, the Germany army was ordered to start planning this reoccupation
German diplomatics began making legal justifications for such action by arguing that the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance was contrary to the Locarno treaties
Mussolini’s attitude was crucial to the success of Hitler’s plan → Italy could not cooperate with the British and French in opposing the remilitarization
March 1936, German troops entered the Rhineland, though initially few in number and lightly equipped
International Response: France and Britain
France did not move to intervene because the French border had not been violated, and there was little support in either France or Britain for preventing Germany from controlling its own territory
the French government refused to fight Germany alone and Britain was unwilling to go to war over the Rhineland
military spending in France was increased
the British government reassured France that in the event of a German attack, they would send troops to France
the British were pleased at the reoccupations because it removed a major German grievance against Britain and France and France could no longer threaten an invasion against Germany
also hoped Germany would now be more cooperative as Germany was a defence against communism
Germany Ends Diplomatic Isolation, 1936
the invasion of Abyssinia led to severely strained relations between Italy and Britain and France
Italy and Germany then began a closer diplomatic relationship to end this state of affairs and challenge British and French domination of international affairs
The Rome-Berlin Axis, October 1936
indicated the desire of this new diplomatic alignment that world affairs be determined by the governments of Italy and Germany and not Britain and France
The Anti-Comintern Pact, November 1936
Hitler’s government agreed with Japan to oppose the Soviet-sponsored organization Communist International: organization that was responsible for supporting communist groups around the world
symbolic for both Japan and Germany in that it was a declaration that neither was diplomatically isolated and they would cooperate in future international diplomacy
Italy joined in November 1937
Anschluss, March 1938
after the failed annexation of Austria in 1934, Germany boycotted Austrian goods and raw materials which severely weakened Austria's economy
Hitler’s government still wanted Austria to merge with Germany
Austria had hundreds of factories, large government reserves of gold, workers for factories and natural resources such as iron and magnesium
1938, Germany was much stronger economically and militarily due to the merging of these states
Austria worked to prevent annexation through negotiation
February 1938, Hitler demanded that the Austria government appoint an Austrian Nazi Party member, Aurthur Seyss-Inquart as the minister of public security which was in charge of all police, as well as have all jailed Nazi Party members released
Austria complied, only to have Hilter publicly denounce Austrian independence
Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuchnigg decided to undermine Germany’s argument that Austrians wanted to merge with Germany
a plebiscite was scheduled for March 13th
Schuschnigg led a single-party state up to this point
in order to gain support for Austrian independence, allowed the formation of labour unions and opposition political parties
he increased the voting age to 24 as he felt that younger people would support the unification
Hitler’s government announced that riots had broken out against Schuschnigg’s government and German forces needed to enter Austria to restore order
Schuschnigg was commanded to turn over all authority to Austrian Nazi Party officials or face an invasion
Schuschnigg resigned and was replaced by Seyss-Inquart
Seyss-Inquart sent a message to Germany’s government asking to resort public order though there was no disorder
March 12, German forces entered the country
March 13, Austria was annexed in violation of the Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye
99% of voters approved this annexation through a plebiscite
International Response: Britain and France
Britain’s Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain noted that British officials had indicated their displeasure over Germany’s action to the German government, though he also stated that there was little any country could have done to prevent the annexation
Appeasement
the policy of working with Germany was used to give Hitler the impression that Britain and France were easter to allow him to do whatever he wanted in central and eastern Europe so they could avoid war
the British government believed that negotiating made more sense than threatening Germany militarily especially since Britain did not have the military capability to attack back at this time
many saw Germany’s demands as reasonable until September 1st, 1939
Hitler, to some extent, did see Britain and France as weak as a result of negotiating though he also believed that these states were fundamentally weak because they were democratic
International Response: Soviet Union
the Soviet Union could only protest as its government was in disarray
1934, Soviet government started purges: removal of people who were deemed a treat by Soviet government authorities through loss of work, imprisonment or execution
this intensified in 1937-8
at least 700 000 people were killed
1.5 million were imprisoned
many ambassadors, heads of departments, secretaries, and deputy ministers were killed in the purge
Sudeten Crisis, October 1938
over 3 million Germans live in Czechoslovakia and the main German political party, the Sudeten German Party (a German political party in Czechoslovakia in the 1930s that was closely allied to and adopted many of the ideals of the Nazi Part of Germany) demanded autonomy for the Sudeten area of Czechoslovakia where most of the Germans lived
Konrad Henlein, head o the Sudeten German Party, met Hitler in Berlin at the end of March 1938
he then presented a list of demands called the Karlsbad Programme
the main aim was German autonomy within Czechoslovakia
the Czechcoslovakian government of President Edvard Benes was willing to give Sudeten Germans more rights, but it was not willing to allow self-government
Sudeten was import for Czechoslovakia’s advanced economy as it was a source of metals and other mined products
it was also the location of the main defences against an invasion from Germany
the country’s military was partially mobilized for war at the end of May which showed Germany that it was willing to fight
International Response
Czechoslovakia had alliances with France and the Soviet Union
only a small population was German
Czechoslovakia had a modern, well equipped military and its industrial capacity was import
France
France had a military alliance and was alarmed at the possibility of war
there was no possibility of France intervening militarily as it was engaged in developing the defensive Maginot line and producing weapons
they were also not ready for a confrontation
France reached out to Britain to help resolve the crisis
Soviet Union
the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia had a mutual defence treaty since 1935
this was aligned with the mutual assistance treaty between France and the Soviet Union
the Soviets pledged to support Czechoslovakia if France would move military to prevent an attack on the country
this gesture was mostly a hollow one since the French government did not intend on going to war over Czechoslovakia, nor did it want to cooperation with the communist state
Britain
Britain believed that the Germans living in Czechoslovakia were discriminated against and had sympathy with German demands
were not willing to go to war over the borders of any central or eastern European state
Britain was in the midst of substantial rearmament and was not in a position where pressure could be applied to Germany
pressure was placed on the government of Czechoslovakia to agree to the demands of Henlein, in the hopes that this would prevent a war
A Continuing Crisis
July, France informed Czechoslovakia’s government that it would not go to war to prevent the loss of Sudeten
Britain sent a minister, Lord Runciman, to demand that the government comply with as many of the Sudeten German demands as possible
Germany mobilized 750 000 troops to conduct maneuvers on their mutual border in an attempt to force more concessions
early September, Czechoslovakia’s government gave in to most Sudeten demands
September 13, Chamberlain flew to Germany to discuss the Sudeten Crisis directly with Hilter
hoped that a reasonable solution could be found to the crisis so that war could be averted
after meeting he met with French Prime Minister Edouard Daladier
both agreed that most areas of Czechoslovakia that held populations with more than 50% Germany should be ceded to Germany
this was initially rejected by Czechoslovakia, but by September 21, the Czech government decided this was the only way to avoid war
almost immediately, Hitler made new demands
areas of Czechoslovakia that held large Hungarian and Polish populations should be given to Hungary and Poland
German troops should immediately occupy the Sudeten
Britain and France rejected these new demands and prepared for war
Hitler did not war though he did not back down as he believed that Britain and France would eventually agree
he ordered the army to prepare to invade Sudeten and finally settled on October 1st for this to occur
Munich Agreement, 30 September 1938
Mussolini was alarmed as Italy was Germany’s ally and might be dragged into a conflict → they were not prepared
Mussolini calls a meeting between the leaders of Italy, Germany, Britain and France held on September 28
Czechoslovakia nor the Soviet Union were not invited to attend
the agreement stated
Germany was to receive the Sudeten from Czechoslovakia
German troops would occupy the Sudeten in stages between October 1-10
Plebiscites would be held to determine in which country residents wished to be citizens
German troops were to be released from Czech military service
International commission would resolve disputed areas
Czechoslovakia was bluntly informed by Britain and France that if they did not implement the Munich Agreement, they would fight Germany alone
Czechoslovakia complied
ultimately all undone in only 6 months
Results of the Sudeten Crisis
Chamberlain succeeded in obtaining Hitler’s agreement to what is known as the Anglo-German Declaration
this was a statement that Germany and Britain would not go to war to resolve problems
each state pledged to consult the other over issues that might league to conflict
France
the French public was in favour of the Munich Agreement
France was weakened by the Sudeten Crisis
Czechoslovakia had been sacrificed for France’s safety and this sacrifice would strengthen Germany
France had proven to the Soviets that the mutual assistance guarantee had little value and could not be relied on
France had aligned its policies with those of Britain during the crisis though Britain continued to refuse to agree to a permanent military alliance
France increased military spending by 300% in November 1938
France and Germany signed the Franco-German Declaration in December 1938
pledged to peace and respecting each other’s borders
Britain
the British public was also enthusiastic about avoiding war and proud of its government’s role
Britain negotiated what seemed to be a permanent settlement
Britain was aware that France was quite isolated and might work to reach some agreement with Germany to save itself from a future conflict
British rearmament continued at an accelerated pace
Soviet Union
the Soviet Union had been ignored, neglected and dismissed throughout the crisis
Soviet government realized that Britain and France were willing to accommodate fascist states
the main fear was that Britain and France could not oppose Germany if a major attack was attempted on the Soviet Union, in fact they might even join Germany
Germany
Hitler was relieved that war with France and Britain had not occurred
Hitler’s popularity grew which saved him from a plot by military officers to assassinate him and end Nazi government
the plotter feared public reactions
Czechoslovakia was dismantled rapidly
October 2: Poland seized Tensin (Teschen in German, Cieszyn in Polish) with approval from Germany
October 6: Slovakia, which occupied most of eastern areas of the country was granted autonomy
November 2: Hungary received a large strip of southern Czechoslovakia mostly from the autonomous Slovakia
November 20: Germany as granted rights to construct a highway across its territory to link eastern part of Germany with Vienne
March 1939, Czechoslovakian President Emil Hacha was summoned to meet Hitler in Berlin
he was told that either Czechoslovakia would be invaded by Germany immediate or he could agree to becoming a part of Germany with some autonomy over its own affairs
Hacha signed over the country’s independence
Slovakia was declared an independent country allied to Germany
territories taken from Germany (ie. Memel, taken by Lithuania in 1923) was returned
The Final Crises and Outbreak of War 1939
Polish Crisis 1938-9
as early as October 1938, Germany requested negotiations with Poland regarding the building of rail and road links between the main part of Germany and East Prussia
if Poland agreed, Germany would agree to a 25 year non-aggression pact
Poland would be compensated with territory elsewhere
Poland and Germany had had relatively friendly relations since the implementation of the non-aggression agreement in 1934 and Germany allowed Poland to also help participate in the dismantling of Czechoslovakia
German requests for territory asking for access through the Polish Corridor and control of Danzig was the most logical
Danzig had its own locally elected government and it was dominated by the Nazi Party
the British and French were outraged → they had be led to believed that German territorial requests ended with the Munich Agreement
there were overwhelming demands that their government should not negotiate away Polish or League territory and confront Germany if required
February 1939, Britain declared that they would support France militarily
Guarantee of Poland’s Borders, March 1939
Poland was heavily armed and stated that they were not interested in negotiating away any territory
eventually informed the League that if Germany attempted to annex Danzig, Poland would go to war
March 1939 Britain and France made a public, verbal declaration that they would guarantee Poland’s borders
they hoped Germany would negotiate any changes in borders and not use military force
Britain and France were now in an ever-strengthening position with regard in armaments and could surpass the production and stockpiles of weapons of Germany if they worked together
April, Britain began conscripting soldiers as part of its military build-up
Britain now worked to create an anti-fascist network of alliances so that any conflict between Germany would drag other countries into the conflict
Mutual assistance agreements were signed with Greece and Romania after Italy’s invasion of Albania and later with Turkey
Britain and France refused to send weapons or supplies to Poland though
argued that nothing could be spared with rearmament
when Poland asked for loans to buy weapons from elsewhere, both nations said their own financial problems prevented this
Britain and France feared that arming Poland would lead to Poland attacking Germany or provoke Germany into attacking Poland
formal military talks between Poland and Britain were only finalized on August 25th 1939
Britain and France Negotiate with the Soviet Union
Britain and France made overtures to the Soviet Union
they presented the case that it was in the Soviet Union’s best interest to help prevent a war between Germany and Poland
they pointed out that a war could be prevented if the Soviet Union would join their anti-German coalition
the only enticement that Britain and France had to offer wa that they would agree to preserve the borders of eastern Europe as they currently stood
From the British/France perspective, the Soviets should be thankful that they were now made part of international diplomacy, though the Soviets believed that the land they lost at the end of WWI should be returned
Poland also refused to allow any Soviet army to cross its territory to fight Germany in the event of war
Germany’s Response
Hitler never believed that Britain and France would actually go to war over Poland
April, Hitler ordered Germany’s army to prepare plans for invasion of Poland
this plan was called Case White
the plan only took into consideration Poland’s forces and not Britain or France
April 28, Germany withdrew from the Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact as another way to threaten Poland so that it would negotiate away its territory
Poland did not respond
Pact of Steel, May 1939
formal alliance between Italy was created
support other in war
make war plans together
work together economically
coordinate their press, news, and other propaganda
Historians such as A.J.P. Taylor have successfully argued that this pact was essentially meaningless
there was little coordination of foreign policy and no mutual war plans
no economic cooperation
more likely that Germany enacted this pact to increase temporary pressure on France (they shared a border) and Britain (Italy’s navy in the Mediterranean was large and could challenge British forces
hoped this pressure would force Poland to concede territory
Nazi-Soviet Pact 23 August 1939
Germany began secret discussions with the Soviet Union
called for non-aggression between the two states
the Soviet Union would allow Germany to do whatever it wanted diplomatically
parts of the agreement would give parts of Poland that once belonged to Russia back to the Soviet Union
Invasion of Poland, 1 September 1939
Poland refused all negotiations
Britain and France hoped that Poland would grant Germany rail and road connections through the Polish Corridor and allow Danzig to rejoin Germany
this would prevent immediate war and remove remove obstacles to future conflict
they also believed that this would removed hundreds of thousands of Germans who did not want to be part of the country
Poland still refused
Mobilization, 21 August 1939
they planned to invade August 26
Invasion Delayed, 25 August 1939
the planned invasion was delayed, on August 25, two separate issues emerged
Britain and Poland announced that they signed a formal military alliance, replacing the verbal promises of mutual support
Mussolini asked to be released from the obligations imposed by the Pact of Steel
Mussolini hoped that by attaching his country to a powerful ally, it could benefit
hoped that a weakened, frightened France might grant Italy the island of Corsica and other southeastern French provinces
danger that Italy could be dragged into a war that it was not prepared for and it may face the full might of Britain and France in Africa and the Mediterranean
Hitler granted Mussolini’s request and the Pact of Steel was moderated
August 25-6, Britain and France continued to work to prevent war
Germany talked with Britain's ambassador and Germany demanded that its military be allowed to move against Poland without interference
Germany pledged to respond the borders of the British Empire in return
this was an implicit threat to Britain and was immediately rejected
France's appeal for a negotiated settlement was also rejected
August 28, Britain issued a formal warning to Germany not to violate Poland’s border
all British ships in the Baltic and Mediterranean seas were ordered to leave those areas
British government instituted emergency rationing food and essential supplies
Hitler was still not convinced Britain would go to war over Poland
he continued to move German forces into position for the invasion
August 29, Germany made a final diplomatic gesture
offer was for the Polish government to send a representative with the authority to sign treaties in Berlin on August 30
in this meeting Poland would be required to agree that Danzig should be returned to German control, as well as the Polish Corridor (a new demand as earlier only transportation links through this land had been requested)
Poland sent an ambassador to meet the German government on August 31, but he did not have any authority to sign treaties and the meeting ended almost immediately
Germany’s radio stations announced that Poland had rejected negotiations
Poland Invaded, 1 September
September 1, massive invasion of Poland began
three large German armies attack from the north, west, and south of the country with over 1.5 million men
small Slovakian army entered from the south
aircraft bombed military and civilian positions, disrupted roads railways, destroyed bridges, and attacked factories
thousands of civilians were killed within hours as German bomber aircraft attacked towns and cities
Danzig’s Nazi party government announced that it was now merging with Germany
International Response to the Invasion of Poland
Britain and France called for a cessation of hostilities
Italy joined them and called for a Five-Power Conference on September 2nd for Poland, Germany, Italy, Britain, and France would meet to resolve the crisis
Britain agreed to the meeting but insisted that Germany removed itself from Poland as a condition
Germany rejected this demand
September 3, both France and Britain declared war on Germany
Hitler never expected either country to come to the aid of Poland
the declaration of war meant that a localized war between Poland and Germany would now be a European war
Key Debate
historians have debated who and what caused the Second World War, a few arguments…
Germany and Hitler
Historian A.J.P. Taylor wrote in The Origins of the Second World War that the world blamed Hitler and his policies because he was gone and someone in Germany had to be found guilty for causing the war that left millions dead and destruction throughout Europe
Hitler’s foreign policies were quite similar to earlier German policies and those of other states throughout history and that he was only blamed because he was German
the truth is more complicated as Hilter and his government officials simply took the policies of former governments and expanded on them
many historians have held Hilter personally responsible as he seemed to make key decisions and conducted much of his foreign policy in the late 1930s personally
he was intimately involved in coercing Austria;s government to capitulate to Germany in 1938
he was clearly active in the Sudeten Crisis, meeting with Chamberlain and other officials when working out the Munich Agreement
he personally ordered the mobilization of the Germany army and ordered it to attack Poland using plans created earlier on his command
Poland
Several historians have pointed out the Poland absolutely refused to negotiate or compromise with regards to Danzig or the Polish Corridor even when pressured by Britain or France
there may have even been a desire for war on the part of some in Poland’s military
According to historians A.J.P. Taylor and Richard Overy, most Germans felt very strongly about the return of Danzig and the Polish Corridor
Hitler was under the pressure to obtain these territories
Britain
Historian Richard Overy has stated that the Second World War in Europe erupted because Britain and France were threatened as world powers
Germany could be allowed reasonable demands (ie. rearmament for defence, annexation of German-speaking lands, etc.) but had to do so through negotiations
these negotiations were not accomplished with the states being directly affected but with the Great Powers of Britain and France → Germany needed British and French permission
when Germany no longer asked permission, it challenged the authority and position of Britain and if Britain were to remain a world power, they had to counter this
P.M.H. Bell holds Britain somewhat responsible
Britain’s guarantee of Poland’s independence in March 1939 was a challenge to Germany, and all but made war a certainty
A.J.P. Taylor also points out that the fight between Poland and Germany was only a local war → it only became a multinational conflict when Britain and France declared war on Germany