Chapter 1 Summary: A Review of Words and Phrases (Form vs Structure Classes)

Two broad word categories replace the traditional eight parts of speech: form classes and structure classes.
Form classes (content words): nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Identified largely by their forms (endings) and constitute over 99% of the vocabulary.
Structure classes: prepositions, determiners, qualifiers, auxiliaries, conjunctions. Not identified by form endings; identified by function.

Noun and verb definitions are based on form here:
- Noun: a word that can be made plural and/or possessive (inflectional endings such as -s for plural and 's for possessive).
- Verb: a word that can show tense (present vs. past) and has inflected forms (e.g., base form, third-person singular -s, present participle -ing, past tense/past participle -ed).
Inflectional endings (examples): plural -s; possessive -'s (Mary’s laugh) or apostrophe alone for some plural possessives.
The base form (infinitive form) is often shown with to- (to laugh).
Many words can serve as both nouns and verbs (e.g., fight, laugh).
Form-based approach emphasizes structure over meaning for defining nouns and verbs.

The headword of a noun phrase (NP) is a noun.
Most noun phrases include a determiner (noun signaler).
Determiners (a, the, this, that, these, those, etc.) often signal the beginning of an NP.
Some nouns/pronouns in possessive form function as determiners (e.g., Mary’s laugh).
Modifiers (usually adjectives) can precede the headword in preheadword position.
Three defining characteristics of nouns:
1) can be plural and/or possessive; 2) occupy the headword position in the NP; 3) are usually signaled by a determiner.
In syntax, noun phrases are prevalent and their determiners help signal NP boundaries.

The headword of a verb phrase (VP) is the verb; other components depend on whether the verb is transitive (takes an NP) or intransitive (no NP after).
VP can include modifiers and, when needed, an object NP following the verb.
In many sentences, the VP includes modifiers (e.g., Mary laughed loudly).

A sentence (S) can be viewed as NP + VP: S = NP + VP.
NP functions as the subject; VP functions as the predicate.
Diagram/notation: Verb Phrase (Predicate) above Noun Phrase (Subject).
Substituting a personal pronoun for the subject helps locate the subject and predicate.
This subject–predicate relation is the core structure for sentence patterns.

Adjectives and adverbs can usually be recognized by form and/or position.
Inflectional endings for adjectives/adverbs:
- Comparative: -er; Superlative: -est.
- For two-syllable or longer adjectives, use more/ most (e.g., bigger vs. more beautiful).
-ly suffix: turns adjectives into adverbs (derivational, not inflectional), e.g., quick → quickly, happy → happily.
Many adverbs do not end in -ly (e.g., then, now, soon, here, often).
Adverbs answer questions of time, place, manner, frequency (when, where, why, how, how often) and can be movable within the predicate.
Adjectives typically occur in NP between the determiner and the headword; adverbs modify verbs and are part of the predicate.
Movability of adverbs allows repositioning for emphasis; some adverbs are less movable depending on context.

Structure: a preposition followed by a noun phrase (the object of the preposition).
Prepositional phrases are among the most common structures in English.
Functions:
- Adjectival prepositional phrases modify nouns within NP (tell which noun).
- Adverbial prepositional phrases modify verbs within VP (tell where, when, how).
Prepositional phrases are movable; they can appear in different positions in a sentence.
Adjectival vs. adverbial labeling applies to the function of the phrase, not the word class of the preposition itself.
Note: prepositions themselves cannot be identified by form alone; they belong to structure classes.

In addition to the four form classes, the following are structure classes:
- Determiners
- Qualifiers (e.g., very)
- Auxiliaries (helping verbs)
- Conjunctions
These classes contribute to the organization and function of sentences but are not identified by typical inflectional endings.

NP: noun phrase; headword is a noun; often begins with a determiner.
Determiner: signals the beginning of an NP (a, the, this, that, these, those, possession, etc.).
VP: verb phrase; headword is a verb; may include objects and modifiers.
S: sentence; NP (subject) + VP (predicate).
Headword: the main word of a phrase (noun in NP, verb in VP).
Inflectional endings: plural -s, possessive -'s, past -ed, present participle -ing, third-person singular -s.
Base form / Infinitive: the dictionary form of a verb; often shown with to- (to laugh).
Adjectival vs. adverbial: functions; adjectival modifies nouns, adverbial modifies verbs (often via prepositional phrases or adverbs).
Derivational suffix: -ly (adverb formation from adjectives) is not inflectional.
Prepositional phrase: preposition + NP; can be adjectival or adverbial.

Adjective, Adverb, Adverbial, Article, Determiner, Noun, Noun Phrase, Predicate, Preposition, Prepositional Phrase, Pronoun, Proper Noun, Qualifier, Verb, Verb Phrase, Structure Class, Form Class, Inflection, Base Form, Infinitive, Present Participle, Past Tense, Third-Person Singular, Plural, Possessive, NP, VP, S