Global Interactions
Chapters
Chapter 14, Lesson 1: The Peoples of North America and BChapter 14, Lesson 2: Early South American CivilizationsChapter 17, Lesson 1: European Exploration and ExpansionChapter 17, Lesson 2: The First Global Economic SystemsChapter 17, Lesson 3: Colonial Latin AmericaChapter 20, Lesson 1: The Ming and Qing Dynasties
Pre-Columbian America
The Peoples of North America and Mesoamerica
The Peoples of North America
→ Asia and North American continents were connected by a natural land bridge, used to follow herds of bison + caribou → became the first people to live in North America
Eastern Woodlands
→ where the first farming villages appeared, growing crops + gathering wild plants for food
Hopewell People (Mound Builders): extended their culture along the Mississippi River, built large + elaborate earth mounds used for tombs or for ceremonies
→ shift to full-time farming led to prosperous culture in the MIssissippi River valley, grew corn, squash, and beans together to provide plants with nutrients, support + shade
→ cities began to appear, with some containing 10,000 people or more
Iroquois: lived in villages consisting of longhouses surrounded by wooden fences for protection
longhouses: housed about a dozen families
hunted deer, bear, caribou, and small animals such as rabbits and beaver
men: warriors who protected the community
women: owned the dwellings, gathered wild plants, and grew crops
“Three Sisters”: corn, beans, and squash
Each Iroquois group was made up of clans, groups of related families
Great Plains and Southwest
Plains Indians: cultivated beans, corn, and squash along the river valleys of the eastern Great Plains
west of the MIssissippi River basin
Buffalo was a very important animals to the Plains culture
served many uses: meat, skin for clothing, tools from bones
Teepees: circular tents made by stretching buffalo skins over wooden plots, providing excellent shelter
Anasazi: indigenous peoples of the Southwest (modern-day New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Colorado)
dry conditions, but still sufficient rain for farming in some areas
used canals + earthen dams to garden in the desert
skilled at making baskets and pottery
using stone + adobe, they built pueblos
The Maya
→ Mesoamerica: areas of Mexico and Central America before Spaniards arrived
Characteristics of the Maya:
inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula
built temples + pyramids
developed a complicated calendar as accurate as any in existence in the world
included much of Central America and southern Mexico
Political and Social Structures
→ Mayan cities were built around a central pyramid topped by a shrine to the gods
nearby had temples, palaces, and a sacred ball court, believed that more than 100,000 inhabitants might have like in urban centers
→ Mayan civilization was composed of city-states, governed by a hereditary ruling class
often at war with each other
Palenque: powerful city-state, the ruler Pacal claimed to be descended from the gods, as did other Mayan rulers
→ Most of the Maya peasants were farmers, rulers were supported by nobles + class of scribes
→ Society contained peasants + townspeople who worked as skilled artisans, officials, and merchants
lived on tiny plots or on terraced hills in the highlands
houses were built out of adobe and thatch
men did fighting + hunting; women provided homemaking and raising of children
→ cultivated cacao trees, used as a beverage for the upper classes
Religion and Culture
→ all of life was in the hands of divine powers, spiritual perspective was crucial
Itzamna: “Lizard House”, supreme god of Maya civilization
→ Gods were ranked in order of important, with some of them being evil rather than good
→ likely that Mayans were influenced by the Olmec, seen in the practice of building step pyramids + ceremonial rituals
→ practiced human sacrifice to appease the gods
also used for special ceremonial occasions
→ created a sophisticated writing system based on hieroglyphics
→ developed major ideas in architectural engineering that allowed them to incorporate religious ideas into their built structures
→ created books by writing on bark, folding it, and then covering the outside
Long Count: Mayan calendar, based on cycles of creation and destruction
→ Two different systems for measuring time
1) Based on the solar calendar of 365, divided into 18 months of 20 days each + extra 5 days
2) Sacred calendar of 260 days, divided into 13 weeks of 20 days,
only trained priests were allowed to use this calendar
→ Mathematics for astronomical and religious purposes
numerals were based on the number 20, included a symbol for 0
The Toltec
new peoples that rose to prominence in central Mexico
war-like people, extended their conquests into the Maya lands of Guatemala + northern Yucatan, controlled the upper Yucatan Peninsula
builders who constructed pyramids + palaces, brought metalworking to Mesoamerica + were the first people in the region to work in gold, silver, and copper
began to decline as a result of fighting among different groups in Tula (the capital)
influenced the Aztec Empire’s building styles and artwork
The Aztec
present day Mexico City
constructed temples, other public buildings, and houses
built roadways of stone across Lake Texcoco to the north, south, and west, linking the islands to the mainland
not a centralized states, but a collection of semi-independent territories that local lords governed
alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan allowed Aztec to dominate a huge area
Political and Social Structures
→ had a population as many as 4 million!!!
Monarch: claimed lineage with the gods, who held all power
had a council of lords and government officials who assisted the Aztec ruler
Nobility: held positions in the government
sent to temple schools; stressed military training
males would select a career in the military service, the government bureaucracy, or the priesthood
received large estates from the government
Commoners: majority of the population, consisted mostly of farmers
practical architectural engineering of canals provided irrigation for crops + easy travel to markets
merchants exported and traded goods made by Aztec craftspeople from imported raw materials
Indentured Workers: landless laborers who were contracted to work on the nobles’ estates
sold in the markets, worked in wealthy households
→ women could own + inherit property and enter into contracts, but still not equal to men
Religion
→ influenced by Olmec
→ polytheistic religion, like many other peoples in Central America
Ometeotl: supreme god that represented the all-powerful forces of the heavens
Quetzalcoatl: had a more direct impact on the lives of people, another important god
→ religion was based on a belief in an unending struggle between the forces of good and evil throughout the universe
created + destroyed four worlds, or suns
believed that people were now living to the time of the fifth sun, destined to be destroyed by earthquakes
Aztecs performed humans sacrifice to postpone the day of destruction
Culture
→ religion had a significant impact on Aztec art and architecture
architecture blended religious themes with pyramid’s traditional step-pyramid design
made advances in astronomy, evident in their sun calendar
Aztec priests compute the calendar + observed the movements of the stars and planets to gain knowledge of the future
developed major ideas in mathematics, a number system based on the units of 20
Early South American Civilizations
The Nazca
→ appeared around in southern Peru, covered more than 200 miles of territory
→ lived before the Inca gained power
preserved Chavin style of pottery, but did not build great temples
practiced their religion outdoors
The Moche
→ developed near the Pacific coast not far south of the border of Ecuador
→ very prosperous due to the Moche River
→ allowed farmers to grow maize, peanuts, potatoes, and cotton, supplying much of the food for peoples living throughout the region
→ no written language, but distinct pottery that alluded to the culture + lives of the Moche
The Inca
→ flourished under the rule of Pachacuti, who created a highly centralized state
→ transformed the capital (Cuzco) from a city of mud + thatch to a city of stone
→ temple dedicated to the sun
→ very strict + controlled society
Political and Social Structures
Social Structure: Inca civilization was built on war
all young men were required to serve in the Inca army, making it the largest and best armed in the region
conquered populations were instructed in Quechua language, and control of new territories was carefully regulated (strict!!)
the children of local leaders were taken as hostages to the Inca capital, where they were educated in Inca ways → ensures loyalty to the Inca empire
all Inca subjects were responsible for labor service, usually several weeks each year
men and women were required to select a marriage partner from within their immediate tribal groups, marriage and lives of women was highly regimented (strict!!)
Political Structure: nobles of high ranks governed new regions
local leaders were allowed to keep their posts as long as they pledged loyalty to the Inca ruler
empire was divided into four quarters, each ruled by a governor
each quarter was divided into provinces, each ruled by a governor
each province contained ~10,000 residents
emperor = descendant of Inti (sun god)
Economics and Culture
Economy: based on high-altitude agriculture
used terrace farming in the mountains, watered by irrigation systems that carried precise amounts of water
established extensive trade networks for long-distance trade, organized by government officials rather than merchants
mainly traded food products, textiles, and pottery
Culture: many great engineers + builders
built a system of ~24,800 miles of roads
two major roadways extended in north-south direction
chiefly used for official and military purposes, government permission was needed to use roads
buildings were influenced by the prior Tiwaniku civilization in building design and engineering
Machu Picchu: demonstrates the Inca feats of architectural engineering
buildings were placed harmoniously to create a place of incredible beauty
had no writing system, kept records using quipu
quipu; a system of knotted strings, representing the development of mathematics in Inca civilization
quipu allowed the Inca to record various numbers
extremely precise, allowed mathematical computations of multiplication and division of integers + fractions
numerical system based on units of 10
court theater was a well-developed tradition
made astronomical observations, created two calendars based on the path of the sun
The Age of Exploration
European Exploration + Expansion
Motivations + Goals for Exploration
Gold: economic motives were one of the major causes of European expansion
merchants, adventurers, and state officials had high hopes of expanding trade
especially wanted spices from Asia
had hopes of finding precious metals
Glory: gaining access to Asia by sea
Marco Polo fascinated many Europeans through his accounts of traveling to Asia
Ottoman Turks reduced the ability of Westerners to travel by land to the East
God: religious zeal was another key motivator
Hernan Cortes, Spanish conqueror of Mexico, was a pioneer of spreading religion
believed that explorers must ensure that indigenous people were “introduced + instructed in the holy Catholic faith"
Factors Affecting Exploration
Caravel: Portuguese ship that was faster than previous models
made long voyages of exploration possible + lowered the cost of transport
Accurate Maps: advances in cartography + astrolabe + magnetic compass
as technology improved, many new advances for sailors emerged that made voyages easier to navigate
Knowledge: increasing knowledge on wind patterns
winds primarily influenced the early seas
Gyres: spiraling currents that result from global winds and other forces
Trade Winds: winds blowing from south and west in North Atlantic Ocean
Westerlies: winds blowing from the west to the east
winds were studies and utilized to the explorers’ benefit
Competition for Exploration
Portuguese Explorers
→ primarily sailed around India + Africa
→ Portuguese discovered a new source of gold on the southern coast of West Africa == “Gold Coast”
→ established the Cape of Good Hope
→ returned to India to take control of the spice trade from the Muslims
→ Portuguese had limited empire of trading posts on coasts of India + China, did not have desire to colonize these regions
Spanish Explorers
→ sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean to find the route to Asia
Christopher Columbus: prominent sailor who believed he could reach Asia by sailing west rather than east around Africa
reached the Americas in 1492, but believed he had reached Asia
reached all the major Caribbean islands + Honduras in Central America == called them “the Indies”
Ferdinand Magellan: another prominent Spanish explorer
set sail from Spain in search of a sea passage through the Americas
established the Strait of Magellan
reached the Philippines, but was killed by indigenous people
remembered as the first person to sail completely around the globe.
New Lands To Explore
→ both countries feared that the other would claim some of its newly discovered territories
Treaty of Tordesillas: called for a boundary line extending from north to south through the Atlantic Ocean
gave Portugal control over its route around Africa + gave Spain rights to almost all of the America
→ many government-sponsored explorers from many European countries joined the race to the Americas
Spanish Empire
→ Conquistadors: Spanish conquerors of the Americas, allowed Spain to be able to establish an overseas empire that was quite different from the Portuguese trading posts
Conquest of the Aztec
1) Hernan Cortes marched to Tenochtitlan with a small number of troops
2) Made alliances with city-states that had tired of the oppressive Aztec rule
3) Aztecs were surprised by the technology that Cortes brought (firearms, canons, and steel swords) → Spaniards had a great advantage in fighting the Aztec
4) Spanish took the Aztec ruler hostage and began to pillage the city
5) Many Aztec fell sick and died from European diseases carried over
6) Aztec surrendered, and the city of Tenochtitlan was no more
Conquest of the Inca
1) Francisco Pizarro landed on the Pacific coast of South America with only a small band of 180 men
2) Also brought technology (gunpowder, weapons, horses) to fight
3) brought diseases (smallpox) and devastated entire villages
4) Inca emperor fell due to smallpox, both of his sons claimed the throne → led to a civil war
5) Pizarro and his soldiers sacked the Inca capital and established a new colony of the Spanish Empire
European Rivals
→ motivated by the promise of gold + other precious goods, began to challenge the Portuguese + Spanish for dominance
Dutch: established on the North American continent
formed the West Indies Company; lacked severely in resources + power to maintain roads in Portuguese Brazil + Caribbean
colonies/settlements were not able to flourish because of the West Indies Company’s economic goals (fur trading)
commercial empire eventually fell to the English and the French
France: colonized parts of Canada + Louisiana
Quebec: first permanent French settlement in the Americas
populations in modern-day Canada grew + developed
English: founded Virginia + Massachusetts Bay Colony
established control over most of the eastern seaboard of North America
set up sugar plantations
still compared less than the Spanish empire
The First Global Economic Systems
The Commercial Revolution
→ 300-year-long age of exploration that reshaped the world economy, becoming extremely fundamental
→ saw the rapid expansion of European economies + building of vast international trade empires
→ European powers sought spices, silk, and other goods from Asia → looked for trade troutes
Mercantilism: the notion that the prosperity of a nation depends on a large supply of bullion (gold + silver)
fastest route to large supply of bullion was to extract it from the colonies
Spain claimed vast wealth from the Americas due to its extensive empire in Latin America
Balance of Trade: the difference in value between what a nation imports and what it exports over time
when the balance is favorable, the exported goods are of greater value than the imported goods
governments stimulated the growth of industries + trade to encourage more exports
granted subsidies to new industries; payments made to support enterprises a gov. thinks are beneficial
led to improved transportation systems, high tariffs on foreign goods
colonies became extremely important + crucial as sources of raw materials; markets for exports of manufactured goods
→ Commercial Revolution provided the benefits of free enterprise for many Europeans
new job opportunities, new goods for purchase → improved European standard for living
The Columbian Exchange
Major Goal of European exploration: gain wealth
→ achieved through the exploitation of sources of metals + raw materials in their colonies
→ built wealth by increasing exports of goods from producers at home to colonial markets
Columbian Exchange: exchange of plants and animals between Europe and the Americas
Agriculture: colonists established plantations to grow crops introduced to the Americas and ranches to raise livestock brought from Europe
colonists grew + raised goods, Europeans brought plants + animals back to the Americas that altered the lifestyles
potatoes, cocoa, corn, tomatoes, and tobacco → to Europe
wheat, citrus fruit, honeybees, horses, and cattle → to the Americas
Economic Activity: significantly shifted due to the Columbian Exchange
potatoes because a basic food staple in Europe → led to rapid increase in population
new food crops → supported population growth + created new markets
Spread of Diseases: killed many of the native peoples of the Americas
killed the Aztec + Inca populations
entire communities of Native Americans died in epidemics of smallpox + other diseases that they had no resistance to
Encomienda: the right to use Native Americans as laborers on plantations
holders were supposed to protect Native Americas, but often abused them instead
granted by Spain to Spanish settlers
European Rivals in the East
Dutch: first Dutch fleet arrived in India
formed the East India Company, pushed the Portuguese out of the spice trade
dominance over the spice trade → massive profits
eventually surpassed the Spanish and Portuguese in world trade
English: established a presence in India
established a number of trading posts
carried Indian-made cotton goods to the East Indies
French: established forts along the coast of India
restricted due to the English power in the area
Seven Years War: fought between the French and the English, forced the French to withdraw completely from India
→ British East India Company ultimately got complete control of India
Atlantic Slave Trade
→ European expansion led to dramatic increase in the development of slave trading; demands for slaves increased with the European settlement of the Americas
→ surviving populations of Native Americans was not enough to supply the amount of labor the plantations required, enslaved Africans were shipped to the Americas to relieve a labor shortage
Triangular Trade: 1) European merchants carried European manufactured goods & traded for enslaved people in West Africa → 2) slaves were sent to the Americas and sold → 3) European merchants bought raw materials in the Americas and shipped them back to Europe
as many as 10 million enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas
Middle Passage: the journey from Africa to the Americas (middle portion of the triangular trade route)
Sources of Enslaved Africans
→ most enslaved persons in Africa were prisoners of war
→ local rulers who traded in enslaved people viewed the slave trade as source of income
→ Europeans first bought enslaved people from African merchants at slave markets in return for gold, guns, or other European goods
Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade
Depopulation: deprived many African communities of their men and women
African chiefs and their followers increased raids + wars on neighboring people to make a profit from the Slave Trade
populations in many states declined and warfare increased
Spread of African Culture: African and indigenous cultures blended together
African culture + indigenous customs created a new vibrant culture
African culture still had an influence in the United States, but did not blend with the customs
→ use of enslaved Africans remained largely acceptable to European society until the Quakers began to condemn slavery as a whole
Colonial Latin America
Social Classes
1) Peninsulares: Spanish + Portuguese officials born in Europe
held all important government positions
came from the Iberian Peninsula
2) Creoles: descendents of Europeans born in Latin America
resented the Peninsulares, they regarded Creoles as second-class citizens
→ below these two groups, many multi-racial groups emerged
3) Mestizos: children born from intermarriage of Europeans and Native Americans
eventually grew in status due to their increasing numbers
became artisans and merchants in cities
4) Mulattoes: children of Africans and Europeans
→ Peninsulares + Creoles considered all multi ethnic groups to be socially inferior
Economic Foundations
Mining: gold and silver became very precious
abundant supplies of precious metals financed wars + stimulated further colonization
Farming: became a more enduring source of prosperity
led to deforestation, overgrazing, and over cultivation of single export crops
Labor Systems: Encomienda + Mita systems
Mita: allowed authorities to draft indigenous labor to work in the silver mines
landowners were expected to protect their laborers and ensure that they were instructed in the Catholic faith
led to a population decline in Native American populations
Trade: products shipped to Europe + shipped to colonies
sugar, tobacco, diamonds, and animal hides
Europeans supplied colonists with manufactured goods
State and Church
→ colonial officials in Latin America took liberties in carrying out imperial policies, as communication + travel between the Americas and Europe were difficult
Viceroy (governor-general): headed a bureaucracy that governed the colony
leadership position that had loose control over colonies
Catholic Church: gave great influence upon the society and culture of the Americas
Catholic missionaries brought Native Americans together into villages → where they converted, taught trades, and encouraged the growth of crops
enabled missionaries to control the lives of Native Americans + make them subjects of the empire
built cathedrals, hospitals, and schools in the colonies → gave basic education in language + grammar while preparing for religious education
women were given new opportunities (becoming nuns)
Ming and Qing Dynasties
The Ming Dynasty
→ established after the overthrowing on the Mongol dynasty, Ming Hong Wu
Accomplishments
extended its rule into Mongolia + central Asia
strengthened the Great Wall + made peace with nomadic tribes
Government: centralized bureaucracy staffed with officials chosen by the civil service exam system
Nationwide education/schooling system
manufactured good were produced in workshops and factories in higher numbers
new crops were introduced, increased food production
Important People
Yong Le: son of Ming Hong Wu, second emperor of the Ming dynasty
began the construction of the Imperial City in Beijing, moved capital from Nanjing to Beijing
created to convey the power and prestige of the empire, known as “Forbidden City” because it was off limits to commoners
sent a series of naval voyages into the wider world
encouraged trade and exploration
Zheng He: court official that led seven voyages
explored the coasts of western India, SE Asia, and East Africa
brought vast goods + information about the outside world
Trade
→ Chinese had little interest in European explorers + goods, except for silver
silver was used as its primary means of exchange
high demand for silver in china → led to system of exchange
→ many Ming emperors were isolationist, except for Yong Le
→ allowed European states + merchants to take their place and gain a trading presence in East Asia
→ Both sides benefited from cultural exchange; Chinese scholars were able to read better with European eyeglasses, Christian missionaries were impressed with teachings of Confucius, printing + availability of books, and Chinese architecture
→ gradually began to decline after government corruption and high taxes, and declining crop yields due to harsh weather and peasant revolts
The Qing Dynasty
→ the end of the Ming Dynasty → Manchus came to power
Manchus: farming + hunting people who lived northeast of the Great Wall
ordered all males to adopt Manchu dress and hairstyles
Government: maintained the Ming political system, but Manchus were too ethnically and culturally different from the vast Chinese population
in order to combat, the Qing tried to preserve their identity within Chinese society; defined themselves as legally distinct from everyone else in China
Manchus maintained large landholdings + received revenues from the treasury
Qing brought Chinese into imperial administration to win their support
Kangxi: one of the greatest emperors who ruled during the Ming + Qing dynasties
political skill + strong character, reigned for 61 years
calmed the unrest along the northern + western frontiers by force
gained support of scholars in China as a patron of arts + letters
Treaty of Nerchinsk: stopped Russia’s push east, ended frontier wars, and established trade between Russia + China
gave the Russians a special status in China while other European powers were limited to trade
very tolerant of Christians, several hundred officials became Catholic
Europeans in China
Qianlong: emperor of China during the Qing dynasty
allowed China to experience the greatest period of prosperity + reached its greatest physical size
Decline of Qing Dynasty: eventually fell under the influence of destructive elements at court as he grew olders
court officials + higher taxes led to unrest in rural areas
population growth exerted pressure on the land + led to economic hardship
unhappy peasants launched revolts (the White Lotus Rebellion)
Trade
→ Qing dynasty declined as Europeans sought more trade
1) Qing sold trade privileges to Europeans + confined all European traders to a small island
British initially accepted the system, but began to demand the same access that Russian traders had along the Chinese coast
2) British + China had negative trade balance, British had more goods imported from China than exported to China
3) British mission visited Beijing to seek more liberal trade policies, but China had no desires for European goods
Economy and Daily Life
Changes in Economy
→ China remained mostly agricultural, ~85% of people were small farmers
1) Increase in Population: grew from less than 80 million to more than 300 million over the course of 3 centuries
Reasons: long period of stability under the early Qing dynasty, improvements in food supply
Impacts: less land was available for each family → led to unrest and revolts
2) Manufacturing + Trade: manufacturing increased & trade between provinces increased as well
merchants + manufacturers expanded their trades in silk, porcelain, cotton goods, and other products
China did not develop a trade that was emerging in Europe, business was perceived as inferior to farming
merchants bought land rather than reinvesting their profits in their business
Social Class
→ organized around the family
expected to provide for its’ members needs, including education of children, support of unmarried daughters, and care of the elderly
all family members were expected to sacrifice their individual needs to benefit the family as a whole
based on Confucian ideals
Extended Family: the ideal family until was the extended family during the Qing Dynasty
generations lived under the same roof
when sons married, their wives were no longer considered members of their original families
elderly were held in high regard
Clan: hundreds of related families, went beyond extended family
families were linked by a clan council of elders + common social and religious activities
made it possible for wealthier families to help poorer relatives
Women: considered inferior to men in Chinese society
only males were allowed a formal education/pursue a government career or scholarship
often played strong roles within the family, but was still subordinate to husband
could not legally divorce her husband or inherit property
Foot Binding: restricted the mobility of women, served as a status symbol
women who had bound feet were more marriageable than those who did not
Chinese Art and Literature
→ traditional culture reached new heights during the Ming and Qing dynasties
→ new forms of literature arose that evolved into the modern Chinese novel
The Golden Lotus: the first realistic social novel
The Dream of the Red Chamber: considered to be China’s most distinguished popular novel
→ architecture in the Imperial City in Beijing is seen as the most outstanding example of artistic brilliance
→ blue-and-white porcelain during the Ming dynasty also emerged as very popular; became collected by Europeans in great quantities