Lecture 4(1)

HIST2305 Lecture 4: Illusions and Conflicts: Chinoiseries and the Rite Controversy

I. Chinoiseries

Information Shaped by the Jesuits

  • China was considered equal or superior to Europe in many ways.

  • Confucian moral and social truths resonated with Christianity: emphasis on respect for parents and treating others well.

  • Confucius depicted as a teacher rather than a religious figure.

  • The Confucian Four Books:

    • The Great Learning

    • Doctrine of the Mean

    • Analects of Confucius


    • MenciusThese texts were central to the Chinese educational system.

  • Jesuits successfully framed Confucianism as a desirable philosophy for European culture during the 17th and 18th centuries.

II. Chinoiserie

Influence and Characteristics

  • China started influencing European culture in the early 17th century; Chinese culture was widely recognized.

  • The term Chinoiserie refers to a European artistic style that imitates Chinese motifs and blends them with European Rococo style.

  • Chinoiserie was seen in textiles and porcelains, although Chinese viewers would have found it hard to recognize these imitations as genuine Chinese art.

III. Porcelains

  • Chinese porcelain exports to Europe escalated in the 17th century; European artisans began crafting porcelain inspired by Chinese designs.

IV. Painting and Decorative Arts

  • Most Chinese paintings in Europe were decorative on porcelain.

  • By 1700, Chinese folding screens and wallpaper were popular in France.

  • François Boucher's The Chinese Garden (1742) is a notable example of chinoiserie.

V. Garden Design

  • Sharawadgi: A design principle emphasizing beauty through irregularity in landscape design.

  • European gardens adopted sharawadgi, incorporating fragrant plants, decorative rocks, ponds, and winding pathways.

VI. The Tea Culture

  • The 18th century saw a surge in tea drinking, influencing the popularity of chinoiserie.

  • Tea drinking became essential in polite society, creating demand for Chinese wares.

  • By 1750, England imported 10 million pounds of tea annually, highlighting the practice's widespread appeal.

VII. Jesuit's Policy of Accommodation

Valignano’s Strategy

  • Conversion through cultural accommodation was a key Jesuit strategy designed in 1579 by Alessandro Valignano, emphasizing local cultural sensitivity.

  • The strategy focused on three levels: doctrinal, cultural, educational.

Three Levels of Accommodation

  1. Doctrinal Level: Adapting Christianity to local cultures while retaining core doctrines.

  2. Cultural Level: Adopting local dress and language for effective proselytizing.

  3. Educational Level: Increasing local converts and training indigenous leaders for the continuation of Christianity.

Ruggieri’s and Ricci’s Strategies

  • Michele Ruggieri (1543–1607): Presented as a Buddhist monk to gain acceptance, published first Chinese catechism, adopted local persona.

  • Matteo Ricci: Transitioned from monk to Confucian scholar, emphasizing Confucian teachings to integrate himself into Chinese society.

VIII. The Chinese Response

  • Jesuit methods were developed with input from Chinese literati, reflecting diverse responses across social classes.

  • Literati respected Confucian teachings, while common people often engaged in secret societies combining various religious elements.

IX. Directives of Matteo Ricci

  • Key characteristics included:

    1. Cultural accommodation to Chinese customs.

    2. Top-down evangelization.

    3. Indirect propagation using science to appeal to educated Chinese.

    4. Openness to Chinese values.

Crucial Problems of Accommodation

  • Issues arose over the choice of Chinese terms for God and acceptance of ancestral worship practices.

  • Jesuits took a tolerant stance toward ancestor worship, viewing it as respect rather than idolatry.

X. Decrees and Edicts

  • Papal Decrees:

    • 1656: Pope Alexander VII permitted customs compatible with Christianity.

    • 1692: Kangxi’s edict allowed freedoms for Christian worship, recognizing Jesuits' peaceful nature.

XI. Other Religious Orders in China

  • Jesuits were predominant from 1500-1800, with other orders following different approaches.

  • Franciscans: Focused on lower classes, often inciting tension with government due to secretive practices.

XII. The Rites Controversy

  • Dueling approaches between Jesuits and other orders regarding Confucian rites led to significant conflict within Catholic missions.

  • Pope Clement XI condemned Chinese rites and prohibited many traditional practices, leading to further discord with Chinese authorities.

    • Kangxi, Yongzheng, and subsequent emperors reinforced anti-Christian policies in reaction to Papal decrees.

XIII. Protestant Missions

  • Beginnings in 1807 with Robert Morrison; focused on translation and education.

  • Established significant texts, including a Chinese-English dictionary.

  • Protestant conversions grew amidst existing bans; benefits obtained through treaties with Western powers post-Opium War.

XIV. Conclusion

  • The interaction between Western missionary efforts and traditional Chinese practices created a complex web of cultural exchange, conflict, and adaptation over centuries.