07 Public policy and interest groups

Page 2: What is Public Policy?

• Policy Definition: A plan and course of action.

• Public Policy Definition: A policy enacted by government bodies; outcomes of governance.

• B. Guy Peters Definition: “The sum of government activities... which have an influence and impact on the life of citizens.”

• Characteristics:

  • Problem-solving for communities.

  • Involves addressing, solving, and managing community issues.

  • Non-governmental solutions and lack of governmental action can still count as public policy.

• Examples of Decisions: Transfer of decisions (like PIT 1% in Hungary), unrevealed objectives (like Covid-19 herd immunity), and faked actions.

• Field of Study: Analysis of outputs of politics (policies) and governance assists decision-makers.

Page 3: Public Policy Actors

• Key Actors:

  • Institutions and organizations of public administration

  • Political parties

  • Media and public opinion

  • Lobbyists and interest organizations

  • Donors and protectors

  • Advisers and experts

  • NGOs, volunteers, and activists

  • International players

Page 4: Variety of Organizations

• Political Parties: General actors competing for power and representing values/ideologies.

• Lobbyist Organizations: Influence decisions but rarely participate as co-decision makers in neocorporate systems.

• Interest Groups: Represent interests of their members.

• Other Associations: May act as watchdogs.

• Roles:

  • Political parties aim to obtain power and influence policies.

  • Lobbyists and interest groups aim for financial benefits and political recognition.

  • Associations focus on informing and serving their members.

Page 5: Channels of Institutionalized Interest Representation

• Representational Channels:

  • Other public administration organs

  • Ministries or Departments

  • Government

  • Legislature

  • Pressure groups

  • Political parties

  • Voters

Page 6: Power and Other Tools of Pressure Groups

• Power Factors:

  • Mass membership and social support

  • Political contacts

  • Unique knowledge

  • Organizational strength and financial power

  • Media influence

• Influence Channels:

  • Public opinion and media

  • Judiciary

  • International forums

  • External pressure from international organizations

Page 7: Policy Cycles

• Stages of Policy Cycle:

  1. Agenda Setting - identification of issues and initiatives

  2. Decisions - policy formulation

  3. Actions - implementation

  4. Evaluation - reassessment and maintenance

Page 8: Stages and Features of Policy Cycles

• Agenda Setting: Influenced by various political and social actors, media, and international contexts.

• Policy Formulation: Choices made based on alternatives and impact studies.

• Implementation: Can face unexpected developments; can be top-down or bottom-up.

• Evaluation: Assessment of output vs. outcome; financial and political impacts reviewed.

Page 9: Theories of Decision-Making

• Importance: Policy-making requires formal decisions made by government bodies.

• Decision Process: An act of choosing among alternatives.

• Four General Models: Rational actor models, Incremental models, Bureaucratic organization models, Garbage can model.

Page 10: Rational Actor Models

• Foundation: Based on economic theories and utilitarianism.

• Assumptions: Human beings are rational and act to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

• Decision-making: Evaluated based on effectiveness, reliability, and costs.

• Public-choice theories: Discussed by Anthony Downs and popularized by the neoliberal New Right.

Page 11: Weaknesses of Rational Actor Models

• Issues Identified:

  • Differences between individual and group decisions.

  • Organizational needs for centralized command.

  • Bounded rationality: decisions influenced by compromised outcomes.

  • Overlooks psychological, cognitive, and cultural factors.

• Current Trends: Emphasis on behavioral economics.

Page 12: Incremental Models

• Concept: Policy-making as continuous adjustments rather than clear-cut objectives (Charles Lindblom).

• Advantages: Minimizes risks from inadequate information, offers flexibility.

• Application: Suitable for pluralist democracies; encourages participation and consultation.

Page 13: Weaknesses of Incremental Models

• Concerns:

  • Conservative bias against radical actions.

  • Long-term visionary thinking is often overlooked.

  • Does not explain major changes effectively.

  • Amitai Etzioni’s mixed scanning model suggests a combination of rational and incremental approaches.

Page 14: Bureaucratic Models

• Difference: Moves away from 'black box' theories to examine organizational structures and participant influences.

• Key Models:

  • Organizational Process Model: Focus on culture of organizations in decision-making.

  • Bureaucratic Politics Model: Highlights competition among actors pursuing varying interests.

Page 15: Weaknesses of Bureaucratic Models

• Critique: Neglects role of leadership and external pressures in decision-making.

• Note: Not all decisions rest solely on organizational pressures.

Page 16: Garbage Can Models

• Concept: Organizations are imperfect and decisions can stem from chaos (Cohen – March – Olsen).

• Process: Problems, goals, solutions thrown into 'garbage can' resulting in random decision-making.

Page 17: Weaknesses of Garbage Can Models

• Issues:

  • Many organizations cannot function without clear decision-making structures.

  • Assumes extreme chaos that does not reflect typical organizational realities.

Page 18: Comparison of the Four Models

• Overview of the Models:

  • Rational models emphasize objective assessment.

  • Incremental models focus on consensus-building.

  • Bureaucratic models explore cultural influences.

  • Garbage can models view decision-making as chaotic with uncertain outcomes.

Page 19: Policies and Governance

• Policy-Making Variations: Openness, community vs. private interests, reliability of planners, stakeholder participation, governance approaches.

• Governance Issues: Firefighting governance, lack of consistency, political-strategic considerations.

Page 20: Policy Tools and Examples

• Types of Tools: Regulatory, financial, and service mechanisms used in policies, e.g., anti-alcohol policy, taxation, licensing, campaigns for public awareness.

Page 21: Public Administration

• Definition: Involves civil servants, public officials, and bureaucracy—implementation of laws and managing governance.

• Functions: Law execution, policy advice, administration, and interest aggregation.

Page 22: Ideal-Type Bureaucracy

• Weber’s Characteristics: Division of labor, formal rules, hierarchy, impersonality, and a career-oriented selection process as ideal bureaucratic features.

Page 23: Political Control of Bureaucracy

• Context: Need for checks on bureaucratic power to ensure accountability.

• Control Mechanisms: Political accountability, politicization of civil service, counter-bureaucracy.

• Patterns of Administration: Varied from meritocratic to politicized structures.