WHAP - Time Period 3
Unit 5: Revolutions
The Enlightenment
17th and 18th centuries - humankind in relation to government
Divine Right: church allied with strong monarchs, monarchs believed they were ordained by God to rule - people had moral/religious obligation too obey
Question of ultimate authority
Mandate of Heaven in China - had to rule justly to be appreciated in heaven
Social contract: governments not formed by divine decree, but to meet social and economic needs
Philosophers of the age:
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): government should preserve peace/stability - all powerful rule who ruled heavy-handed
John Locke (1632-1704): men are all born equal, mankind is good and rational - primary role of government was to secure and guarantee natural rights and revolting is justified if not
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): all men are equal, society organized according to general will of people - government is protection by community and both being free
Voltaire (1694-1778): espoused idea of religious toleration
Montesquieu (1689-1775): separation of powers among branches of government
David Hume (1711-1776): lack of empirical evidence casts doubt on religion
Adam Smith (1723-1790): an “invisible hand” will regulate economy if it is left alone
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): women should have political rights, including voting and holding office
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): knowledge exists beyond what is deduced from use of only observation or only reason
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794): criminals retain some rights and state should not practice cruel punishment
Enlightened monarchs: utilized ideas of tolerance, justice, improving quality of life
Neoclassical Period: middle of 18th century - imitated style of ancient Greek/Roman architecture
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Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and Europe
American Revolution
British defeated France over American territory - French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War - pushed France to northern territory
Americans revolting against British rulership
British passed laws on behalf of Crown for the American colonizers (George Grenville, Charles Townshend)
Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), Tea Act (1773) intended to raise funds for British government
Colonizers opposed these laws and began battling British troops shortly after - Boston Tea Party (1773): colonists dumping imported tea in harbour to protest Tea Act
Thomas Paine: wrote Common Sense, encouraging colonizers to form a better government than the monarchy - 6 months later the Declaration of Independence was signed
France joined forces with Americans in 1777 and defeated the British in 1781 and the American democracy was created
French Revolution
France was running out of money from monarch spending, wars, and droughts - Louis XVI proposed raising taxes to the Estates-General (governing body infrequently called by the kings)
First Estate: clergy
Second Estate: noble families
Third Estate: everyone else
Representatives from each estate
Third Estate was facing being shut out of new constitution - formed National Assembly in 1789 out of protest and peasants stormed the Bastille shortly after
Declaration of the Rights of Man - adopted by National Assembly in 1789 and caused big changes in French government structure
Established a constitutional monarchy at first, but new constitution development led to the Convention being the new ruling body - France become a republic (led by Jacobins who later beheaded the king)
Convention threw out constitution again and created Committee of Public Safety: enforcer of revolution and murdered any anti-revolution people
led by Maximilien Robespierre
French beheaded Robespierre in 1795 and established another new constitution with the Directory as the government
Built up military, with Napoleon Bonaparte as one of the generals
Napoleon overthrew the Directory in 1799 - Napoleonic Codes (1804) recognized equality of men, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire with French military and fought other countries who eventually met to overthrow him (Prince von Metternich, Alexander I of Russia, Duke of Wellington)
Defeated him at Waterloo in 1813 and met at Congress of Vienna to discuss what to do with France
Congress of Vienna:
Balance of power should be maintained among powers of Europe
Tried to erase French Revolution
Haiti:
France enslaved many Haitians, who eventually revolted successfully, led by Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture
Jacques Dessalines, a former slave, became governor-general in 1804
South America
Napoleon invaded Spain and appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte to the throne -
Colonists ejected French governor and appointed own leader in Venezuela, Simón Bolívar, who eventually helped them declare independence from Spain in 1811
Established a national congress, but was also opposed by Spanish royalists, who declared a civil war
Bolívar won freedom for Gran Colombia (Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
José de San Martin: took command of Argentinian, Chilean, Peruvian armies, and defeated many Spanish forces to also declare independence from Spain
Brazil
John VI of Portugal fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded Portugal -
His son Pedro became the emperor of Brazil and declared it independent with a constitution
His son Pedro II took over and abolished slavery
Mexico
priest Miguel Hidalgo led a revolt against Spanish rule in 1810, who was later killed by them
Jose Morelos picked up where he left off
Independence achieved in 1821 - Treaty of Cordoba: Spain recognizing their 300-year-old control of Latin America was ending
Neocolonialism: independent nations still controlled by economic and political interests
Riches accumulated often stayed within wealthy landowning class
Mexican Revolution: protest of neocolonialism - rejection of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship to protest impoverished conditions
Other resistance movements:
Peru
Tupac Amaru II led a revolt against Spanish occupiers and inspired further resistance movements
West Africa
Samory Toure led resistance against French colonizers and inspired further resistance
US
Sioux resisted the US government invading their land, but were shot at during their protests
Sudan
Muhammad Ahdam led Mahadists in a revolt against colonial rule of Egypt but was stopped by the British
Slavery still existed in independent nations as well as class inequalities
Catholic Church still dominated
Industry and Imperialism
Industrial revolution in Britain can not be separated from Imperialism
Industrial countries gained power quickly to exploit colony resources
Industrial Revolution: began in Britain in 19th century - spread through Europe, Japan, US
Agricultural output increased significantly again - more people moved to cities
Enclosure: public lands that were shared for farming became enclosed by fences
New farming technologies
Urbanization was natural - London grew to over 6 million people
Domestic system (most work being done on farms or at home or at small shops) preceded
New advancements that changed production:
Flying shuttle: sped up waving process
Spinning jenny: spinning vast amounts of thread
Cotton gin: invented by Eli Whitney - processed massive amounts of cotton quickly
Steam engine - Thomas Newcomer, James Watt
Steamship - Robert Fulton
Steam-powered Locomotive - George Stephenson
Telegraph: communication with great distances in seconds
Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell
Lightbulb
Internal Combustion Engine for cars
Radio
Also major developments in medicine and science, theory of natural selection (Charles Darwin)
Rapid creation of products was done in factories
Interchangeable parts: machines could be replaces or fixed quickly
Assembly line: each worker had one small part in production - man became the machine
Workers were overworked, underpaid, and working in unsafe conditions - child labour was common
Despairing conditions
Formation of new social classes - aristocrats were those rich from industrial success, middle class of skilled professionals, huge working class
Adam Smith: success achieved through private ownership and free market system (capitalism) - governments removed from regulation = laissez-faire capitalism
Start of stock market and other financial instruments
Karl Marx: The Communist Manifesto - working class take over means of production and all resources would be equally - Marxism was foundation for socialism and communism
Luddites: workers who destroyed equipment in middle of night to protest working conditions
Marxism mixed with capitalist thought to create partly socialist systems in many places
Major split among intellectuals and policymakers in regards to response to inhumane factory conditions
Factory Act of 1883: limited hours of each workday, restricted children from working, factory owners had to make conditions safer
Labour Unions: vehicles for employees to bargain for better conditions
Living conditions improved - middle class became larger, public education increased, social mobility became more common
Slave trade abolished in 1807 in Britain
Women became more limited to their traditional roles
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Nationalist Movements and Other Developments
Nationalism was strong after Napoleonic era
France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Russia had unified
Italy and Germany, which were city-states took longer to unify and alter balance of European power
Italy: Count Camillo Cavour named prime minister of Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel II who pushed for nationalism - after Giuseppe Garibaldi, another nationalist overthrew other Italian kingdoms, a lot of Italy was unified in 1861
Germany: Prussia, which controlled a lot of present-day Germany, under the rule of William I who appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime minister, defeated Austria and engaged in the Franco-Prussian War to create the new German Empire
New emperor William II forced Bismarck to resign and built a huge military force
Other Nationalist Movements:
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Russia:
Romanov czars had absolute power in 19th century
Alexander II began reforms - Emancipation Edict: abolished serfdom but had little effect
Small middle class began to emerge which led to an intellectual political group The People’s Will assassinating Alexander II
In response, Alexander III started Russification: all had to learn the Russian language and convert to Russian Orthodoxy
Ottoman Empire: was at danger of collapse so Britain and France worked to maintain it to prevent Russia from gaining control over Mediterranean
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The Growth of Nationalism
Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-state/empires that protects their cultural identity
Had major influence and effects all over the world
Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization
In Search of Natural Resources
Europe has coal and iron for power and factory equipment, but needed raw materials that didn’t grow there - solution = colonization
Colonization has given industrial countries great wealth
Europe had colonized nations on every continent - depleted raw materials in these nations at extreme speed and destroyed and polluted environments
Transnational Businesses: international corporations that strengthened Europe’s economic power in Asia and Africa
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European Justification
Europe was very ethnocentric - other cultures were barbaric and uncivilized, even as progressives were denouncing the slave trade - why?
Social Darwinists: applied natural selection to sociology - there were dominant races or classes , therefore Britain was the most powerful/fit
Moral obligation to civilize others - Rudyard Kipling’s poem “White Man’s Burden” described colonization as justified
European Imperialism in India
India had many luxuries to Europeans - tea, sugar, silk, salt, jute
India was vulnerable to external powers after wars in 18th century Mughal empire and religious conflict
France and England battled each other in Seven Year’s War for colonial superiority and Britain won
British East India Company: joint-stock company like a multinational corporation - had exclusive British trade rights in India - led by Robert Clive
Britain started slowly taking over Mughal Empire territory and setting up administrative regions through empire - first, island of Ceylon, then Punjab Northern India, then Pakistan and Afghanistan
Sepoy Mutiny: Indians who worked for British as soldiers were called Sepoys - they rebelled against British Muslim/Hindu disrespect in 1857, but it failed
British then made all of India a crown colony - Queen Victoria made Empress of India above almost 300 million Indian subjects
Mughal Empire ended when last ruler Bahadur Shah II was sent into exile
India became model of British imperialism - upper castes taught English, Christianity spread, industrialization and urbanization - but more and more Indians dreamed of being free from Britain
1885: group of Indians formed Indian National Congress to fight for independence - wouldn’t be achieved until mid-20th century
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European Imperialism in China
Up until 1830s, Europe could only trade with China in city of Canton - China was relatively isolationist, until Europe gained industrial power and barged in with weapons
Opium Wars: British traders brought Opium to China in 1773 and widespread addiction was caused - forbidden and seized in 1839
Britain wanted to continue trade, so brought war to China
Treaty of Nanjing: China forced to sign unequal treaty that gave Britain considerable rights to expand trade with China
Hong Kong declared crown possession of Britain in 1843
Second Opium War occurred in 1856 for four years when Britain tried to further trade and China lost again - all of China opened to trade
British takeover caused Chinese to turn on their government’s failings
White Lotus Rebellions (beginning of 18th century): Buddhists who were frustrated over taxes and government corruption
Taiping Rebellion (mid-18th century): rebels led by religious zealot who almost succeeded in taking down Manchu government
Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s): Manchu Dynasty attempt to get its act together, which failed
Korea declared independence from China in 1876
Sino-French War (1883): Chinese lost control of Vietnam
Defeated by Japan in Sino-Japanese War
Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): China forced to hand control of Taiwan to Japan and give them trading rights
France, Germany, Russia, Britain took their own spheres of influence in China - not quite colonies as Manchu Dynasty still had authority
in 1900, US pledged to support sovereignty of Chinese government and equal trading to prevent full British takeover (Open Door Policy) - despite barring Chinese immigrants from US in 1882 (Chinese Exclusion Act)
Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or Boxers: Chinese peasant nationalists attempted to rebel by slaughtering Christian missionaries and controlling foreign embassies in response to government’s defeats and concessions to the West, but failed
Boxer Protocol: China forced to pay Europeans and Japanese with rebellion costs
Chinese culture also started to crumble - imperial government ended in 1911 and a republic was established in China
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Japanese Imperialism
Japan kept Europeans away in 17th and 18th centuries - until European and US appetite for power intensified and Commodore Matthew Perry arrived from US in a steamboat in 1853 - Japan felt obligated to join industrialized world
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) was a trade agreement with the West
Samurai revolted against shogun who ratified it and restored Emperor Meiji to power
Meiji Restoration: era of Japanese westernization - Japan became a world power
1870s: built railways and steamships, abolished samurai warrior class
Prioritized military power - took control of Korea and Taiwan from China in 1895 - military pageantry became a cultural movement
1890s: Japan became powerful enough to reduce European and US influence
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European Imperialism in Africa
Interior Africa remained unknown to Europeans - costal regions used for limited trade, ship stopping points, and the slave trade
1807-1820: most European nations abolished slave trade as Enlightenment principles gained more force - slavery abolished a few decades later
No new enslaved people entered Europe but those still in slavery were not free until mid-century
Former slaves returned to Africa or established their own nations
South Africa: Dutch first arrived and settled Cape Town - British seized it in 1795
South African Dutch (Boers) moved northeast and discovered diamonds and gold - British followed and fought the Boer War (1899-1902) to gain rights to resources, which they won
Egypt: when Napoleon tried to take control of Egypt in 18th century during the weak Ottoman rule, Muhammad Ali defeated the French and the ruling Ottoman Empire in 1805 - began industrialization and agriculture expansions
efforts just temporarily halted by Abbas I
Suez Canal constructed with French and completed in 1869 - connected Mediterranean to Indian Ocean (eventually British took control of it too)
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Berlin Conference
Otto van Bismarck hosted European powers in Berlin in 1884 to discuss land claims in African Congo - encouraging colonialism
By 1914, almost all of Africa was colonized by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium (except Ethiopia and Liberia)
Europeans added substantial infrastructure to the continent, but stripped Africa of resources, most exercised direct rule and implementation of customs over African people (except British who were already busy with India)
Europeans disregarded African boundaries, cut tribal land in half or forced enemy tribes together, ignoring history and culture
Traditional African culture also started falling apart
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US Foreign Policy
Monroe Doctrine: US President Monroe declared Western Hemisphere off-limits to Europeans in 1823 - Britain agreed out of fear of Spain’s potential actions
Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: US would be responsible for intervening in financial disputes between Americas and Europe, if to maintain peace because Europe was still investing in Latin industry
US was exercising own imperialism over Latin America - built their Panama Canal in Panama
US launched Spanish-American War in 1898 to aid Cuba in their conflict with Spain - defeated Spain and gained control over Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba (given independence in exchange for construction of US military bases)
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