Notes on 101 Things I Learned in Architecture School

How to draw a line

Architects use different lines for different purposes, but the line type most specific to architecture is drawn with an emphasis at the beginning and at the end. This anchors a line to the page and gives drawing conviction and punch. If lines trail off at the ends, drawings look wimpy and vague. Train yourself to make strong lines by adding a small blob or kickback at the beginning and end of every stroke.
Overlap lines slightly where they meet. This keeps corners from looking improperly rounded.
When sketching, don’t feather and fuzz across the page—avoid vague lines composed of many short, overlapping segments. Draw with a controlled, fluid motion. It helps to draw a light guide line first. Do not erase guide lines when finished; they lend the drawing character and life.

Ground and figure-ground basics

A figure is an element or shape placed on a page, canvas, or background. Ground is the space of the page.
A figure is also called object, form, element, or positive shape. Ground is alternately called space, residual space, white space, or field.
Figure-ground theory states that the space resulting from placing figures should be considered as carefully as the figures themselves. Space is negative if unshaped after placing figures; it is positive if it has a shape.
When elements or spaces are not explicit but are nonetheless apparent, we can see them even though we can’t see them—they are implied.

Solid-void theory and 3D space

Solid-void theory is the three-dimensional counterpart to figure-ground theory. It holds that volumetric spaces shaped or implied by placement of solid objects are as important as the objects themselves.
A three-dimensional space is positive if it has a defined shape and a boundary between in and out. Positive spaces can be defined by points, lines, planes, solid volumes, trees, building edges, columns, walls, earth slopes, and many other elements.
Positive space example: a dwelling in a college quad (positive space) surrounded by movement (negative space).

Space, experience, and dwelling

We move through negative spaces and dwell in positive spaces. The shapes and qualities of spaces influence human experience; we inhabit spaces, not just walls and roofs.
Positive spaces are usually preferred for lingering and social interaction; negative spaces promote movement.
Medieval city figure-ground plans differ from contemporary suburb plans; suburban buildings are freestanding objects (negative spaces around them), urban buildings shape space (positive spaces for plazas and streets).
Architecture should consider the relationship between building shapes and the shape of outdoor spaces; urban buildings often deform to positively shape adjacent public spaces.

Sense of place and arrival

Sense of place (genius loci) describes places memorable for architectural and experiential qualities.
Arrival in a space matters: tall/bright spaces feel taller when counterpointed by lower, softer spaces; monumental spaces feel more significant at the end of a sequence; orientation (e.g., south-facing light) affects perception.

Denial and reward in path design

Use denial and reward to enrich wayfinding and movement through built environments.
Present a target view, then screen it from view as people approach; reveal it again from a different angle or with a new detail. Diverge onto an unexpected path, then reward with other experiences or views. This extra “work” makes the journey more interesting and the arrival more rewarding.

Program and meaningful space

Design spaces to accommodate a specific program, experience, or intent. Do not draw arbitrary floor plans (rectangles) and assume usefulness.
Investigate program requirements in detail to determine activities and design accordingly; envision actual situations that will happen in those spaces.

Space planning vs architecture

Space planning addresses functional needs and site fit; architecture considers the meaning of the site and the building’s experience.
A space planner might design spaces for office workers; an architect adds meaning, beauty, and emotional resonance.

Architecture begins with an idea; the role of ideas in design

Architecture begins with an idea; design solutions should be driven by underlying ideas, not merely physical interest.
An idea is a mental structure by which we organize, understand, and give meaning to experiences and information.
Without ideas, architects become space planners; decoration alone is not architecture.
The idea’s depth shapes the overall design sensibility.

Parti and its origins

A parti is the central idea or concept of a building, often expressed by a diagram showing general floor plan organization and implications for massing, entrance, circulation, and spatial hierarchy.
Partis can describe massing, site relationship, core location, interior circulation, public/private zoning, solidity/transparency, etc. The emphasis on factors varies by project.
Partis should be cultivated from nonarchitectural understandings and may derive from metaphorical or philosophical notions (e.g., “L’s in conflict,” “finger poking into the woods”).
The ideal parti is debated: some argue for a wholly inclusive parti; others think a perfect parti is neither attainable nor desirable.

Specificity and design idea quality

The more specific a design idea, the greater its appeal. Being nonspecific to appeal to everyone often reaches no one.
Draw on specific observations, poignant statements, ironic points, witty reflections, intellectual connections, political arguments, or idiosyncratic beliefs to give people a point of identification.
Designing in specific ways does not limit use; it invites personal interpretation and richer engagement.
Example prompts: design stairs for a nervous bride; frame a view of a tree on a perfect autumn day; seat a rowdy group to vent and then reveal related experiences.

Justifications for design decisions

Any design decision should be justified in at least two ways. Examples:
- A stair’s primary purpose is passage, but it can serve as a congregation space, sculptural element, and orienting device.
- A window can frame views, bathe walls with light, orient users, reveal wall thickness, indicate structural logic, and acknowledge axial relationships.
- A row of columns can support structure, define circulation, act as wayfinding, and provide rhythmic counterpoint.
Seek multiple justifications for elements to enrich the design.

Drawing strategy: hierarchical drawings

Draw hierarchically: begin with the whole sheet and general elements; use light guide lines and cross-check relations; gradually move to more detail.
If focusing on a specific area, step back to keep overall balance and context; continually evaluate across the entire sheet.

Architecture vs engineering; the architect as generalist

Engineers tend to focus on physical things; architects focus on human interaction with those things.
An architect is a generalist, coordinating a team of specialists (structural, mechanical, interior designers, code consultants, landscape architects, etc.).
The architect must understand enough about each discipline to negotiate competing demands while honoring client needs and the building’s integrity.

Communication: lettering and representation

Good architectural hand-lettering adheres to principles of legibility and consistency; use guide lines; emphasize stroke beginnings and endings; give horizontal strokes a slight upward tilt; use balloon-like fullness for curves; manage white space; fonts can guide until the hand skills develop.

Reality engagement: objective vs subjective engagement

Reality can be engaged objectively (detached, scientific) or subjectively (onement with the objects).
Both modes are crucial to understanding and creating architecture; most modern culture prioritizes objectivity, but architecture needs both perspectives.

Pirsig, and the idea of continuities in design

A famous quote about science and artistry highlights the tension between chunks/pieces and continuities; architecture benefits from engaging both ends of this spectrum.

Layered and directional qualities in space

Stair position relative to layers: a central stair can traverse layers, run parallel to layers, or sit outside the layer system to maintain purity.
When designing any element (stair, window, column, roof, lobby, elevator core), use the parti to express and reinforce the essential idea of the building.

Time and sequence in design

Week-by-week or phase-by-phase progress matter; good designers are fast on their feet as complications arise.
When a parti erodes due to new information, don’t abandon the idea entirely; create a new parti that holistically incorporates what’s learned.

Process vs product; the design process as the core skill

Being process-oriented is more important than producing a perfect final product.
Process means understanding the problem, avoiding forcing solutions, avoiding over-attachment to ideas, addressing multiple aspects holistically, making conditional decisions, knowing when to change, accepting uncertainty, and iterating between concept-scale and detail-scale.
Always ask, “What if…?” to keep exploring possibilities.

Clarity, style, and authenticity

True architectural style emerges from a holistic process, not from chasing a particular look.
Realist examples show that architectural style is often a byproduct of proportion, massing, and material intelligence rather than a designer’s self-proclaimed aesthetic.
Architecture expresses the zeitgeist: the spirit or mood of an era; trends appear across architecture, literature, science, art, etc.

Frames and views; framing vs exposing views

Frame views rather than merely expose them; a well-framed view can provide a richer spatial experience than a wall of windows.
A good quote illustrating preference for framing views: “I like a view but I like to sit with my back turned to it.”

Value, counterpoint, and atmosphere

Value drawings (shade and shadow) convey emotion better than line drawings.
Counterpoint: introduce a contrasting quality to enhance a desired aesthetic (e.g., bright vs dark, tall vs short, rough vs smooth).
Every design feature can have a counterpoint; use this to enrich atmosphere.

Compass associations and site orientation

Cardinal points can carry associations: East (youth, innocence, freshness); South (activity, clarity, simplicity); West (aging, questioning, wisdom); North (maturity, acceptance, death).
These associations can inform site and space planning (e.g., mortuary, worship space, education spaces).

Static vs dynamic composition; balance and reading

Static compositions are usually symmetrical, projecting power and permanence but can be unengaging if overused.
Dynamic compositions are usually asymmetrical and invite exploration; they suggest activity and movement but can be jarring if overdone.
To achieve balance, make a strong initial dynamic move and follow with a counter-move that counterpoints it.

Reading architecture across distances

A good building reveals different things at different distances; circles, rectangles, and squares each have inherent directional and experiential qualities.
Squares are inherently static and nondirectional; rectangles have directional bias; circles are omnidirectional but lack a defined ‘front’ or ‘back’.

Circulation, plan logic, and space relationships

Subtractive vs additive forms relate to how forms are constructed or carved.
A strong floor plan resolves solid-void relationships and circulation so that spaces connect efficiently and meaningfully.
The best circulation is straightforward and allows seating areas to be protected from through-traffic.

2D and 3D design foundations; table of forms

Begin with two-dimensional and three-dimensional design exercises to build a foundation for real architecture.
Classifications: additive, subtractive, shaped/molded, abstract forms.

Communication through oral presentation

An effective studio presentation begins with the problem, then your approach, followed by process, parti, drawings, models, and a candid critique.
Do not start with a dull tour; engage and inform with a clear narrative.

Proportions and historical vs modern architecture

Proportions are a statement of how a building was built.
Traditional buildings use thick exterior walls and a base-middle-top tripartite form; modern buildings rely on frames with thin exterior walls, allowing longer spans and horizontal emphasis.
“Less is more” (Mies van der Rohe) vs. “Less is a bore” (Venturi) illustrate architectural debates about simplicity, ornament, and meaning.

Design for level changes and rotation

When introducing floor level changes, avoid too few steps (Dick Van Dyke step); a minimum of three steps often feels right.
If you rotate or skew a layout, ensure the move has meaningful reasons (gathering spaces, circulation, entry focus, vistas, monument, street geometry, sun alignment, or guiding toward a destination).

Structural honesty and early planning

Always show structural columns on floor plans early in the design process; this helps organize the program and anticipate structural resolution.
Columns are not just structural; they organize and shape space; different shapes (square, rectangular, round) impart different spatial qualities.

Ten-Foot Test and legibility of drawings

A good graphic presentation should meet the Ten-Foot Test: drawings should be legible from about 10 feet away.

Design in section and perspective

Design in section; for many sites and building types, sections reveal critical experiential aspects of a building that plans alone cannot.
Design in perspective to test experiences and opportunities not visible in orthographic drawings.
Techniques for one-point perspective: establish end wall proportion, horizon line, vanishing point, and project lines from VP through wall corners to define space; include people for scale.

Models and massing; early exploration

Build models to explore massing and relationships; massing models are quick and help compare options; highly finished presentation models are for documentation rather than ideation.

Core vs voids; circulation as a design opportunity

In floor plans, treat core/servant spaces (toilets, storage, mechanicals, stairs, elevators) as solids; primary program spaces (lobbies, labs, galleries, offices) as voids.
The circulation system should connect spaces logically and aesthetically, providing surprises, vistas, and lighting variations.
Louis Kahn’s served/servant spaces concept highlights how these spaces organize function and rhythm without sacrificing poetic sense.

Drawing技巧: box method and simplification

If a form seems too complex to draw, draw the box it came in first, then draw the object inside that container.

Overdesign as a design tool

Start with spaces approximately 10% larger than needed to accommodate future requirements; this makes it easier to shrink later if necessary, rather than having to add space.

Dealing with imperfections and the non-perfection of systems

No design system should be expected to be perfect; exceptions can be enriching and reveal interesting human aspects of a project.

Cultural and historical references; zeitgeist

Architecture expresses the spirit of an era; trends in architecture reflect broader social and intellectual currents. Examples include references to modernism, postmodernism, and ongoing debates about form, meaning, and ornament.
Quotes and case studies (e.g., Louis Kahn, Mies van der Rohe, Venturi) illustrate tensions between “less is more” and “less is a bore.”

Practical design considerations for urban and street presence

Build-to-the-street-wall guidance: urban infill should place the building at the prevailing street line to support walkability, accessibility, and street life; pulling back reduces first-floor activity and street quality.
Anchor points (e.g., entrances, registration desks, elevator lobbies) can be placed strategically to activate interior life and create architectural experiences between spaces.

Signage, decoration, and the decorated shed

A building’s meaning can be conveyed through signage or ornament (decorated shed) or through the building’s architectural form (duck). The choice affects how meaning is communicated to the public.

Constraints as opportunities

Design problems come with limitations (site shape, topography, required programs, materials). Rather than lament them, leverage constraints to create compelling architectural solutions (e.g., celebrate vertical relationships on a sloped site; frame an unattractive wall to become a feature).
The Chinese symbol for crisis (danger + opportunity) captures this mindset: embrace problems as opportunities to be expressed.

Practical mindset for designers

When overwhelmed, start drawing; drawing itself is a learning process that helps reveal the problem.
Name concepts and ideas (e.g., "Half-eaten donut" or "cleaved mass"). Naming helps you articulate and test ideas, as stronger concepts surface and older names become obsolete.

About the profession and career arc

Architects are late bloomers: many reach professional stride around age 50 due to the breadth of knowledge required.
The field requires integrating history, art, sociology, physics, psychology, materials, symbolism, politics, and code compliance into cohesive buildings.
Frederick’s background and intent are described; this note also reflects on the value of returning to fundamentals throughout a career.

Color, lighting, and material suggestion in drawings

Be subtle with color: avoid literal representations (e.g., “Brick Red,” “Asphalt Black”); instead, hint at material qualities with washed or dulled tones.
Daylight and daylighting: understand how daylight varies with compass orientation and time of day; e.g., NORTH-facing daylight is diffuse and neutral; SOUTH-facing daylight is strong and color-accurate; EAST has low altitude light; WEST has late-afternoon golden light.
Windows in renderings are often shown dark to create depth unless they are reflective or behind a light shade.

Color theory and composition

Color can support architectural meaning; color seasons (Winter, Autumn, Summer, Spring) describe common color palettes.
Warm colors tend to advance; cool colors tend to recede. Complementary colors on a color wheel help create balanced schemes.

Levels of knowing in architecture

SIMPLICITY: worldview of a child or naïve observer, fully engaged in immediate reality.
COMPLEXITY: ordinary adult worldview; aware of complex systems but struggles to discern patterns.
INFORMED SIMPLICITY: ability to discern or create clarifying patterns within complex mixtures; pattern recognition is crucial for architects.

Summary of 12-spaces example and cross-reference to complexity

A diagram shows how 3 elements can create 3 spaces; 12 elements can create 12 spaces; complexity can arise from informed simplicity.

Practical guidance for presenting and communicating design

A good presentation moves from general to specific; show the design problem, your approach, process, parti, drawings, and models; end with a candid self-critique.
Avoid weak openings like: “you go in the front door here”; engage with a strong narrative.

Proportions, tradition, and modern construction

Traditional buildings often have shorter spans and taller window proportions due to material limitations; modern buildings exploit long spans with steel/concrete frames and thinner walls.
The Farnsworth House and Monadnock Building provide contrasting cases in proportion, wall thickness, and structural logic.

Framing, framing, and rhetoric of form

A frame around a view or a space can intensify the perception of the view or space better than an unframed window.
Frames should be used thoughtfully to shape experience, not merely to “have a view.”

Visual hierarchy and proportioning drawing titles

Use light-colored markers for titles in schematic design; keep drawing titles legible and clear.

Design methods: conscious analysis and iteration

The design process is iterative and non-linear; designers must tolerate ambiguity and continuously test ideas via drawings, models, and perspectives.

The importance of anchors in interior life

Anchors (major program or retail anchors) can draw traffic and stimulate interior life across a building or mall; consider distributing anchors to promote use of intermediate spaces.

Fabric vs object buildings in urban fabric

Fabric buildings (typical residences and commercial blocks) form a cohesive texture of the street; object buildings stand out and are spatially distinct; both types influence urban experience.

Practical transport and storage of drawings

Roll drawings with the image side facing out to keep them flat for display or delivery.

Final reminders

Always design with the next larger context in mind; a chair in a room, a room in a house, a house in a city plan.
The primary mechanisms for government regulation in architecture include zoning codes, building codes, and accessibility codes:
- ZONING CODES: regulate use, height, density, lot size, setbacks, parking.
- BUILDING CODES: regulate materials, floor area, height, energy, fire protection, ventilation.
- ACCESSIBILITY CODES: ensure use by persons with disabilities; ADA is a key code; states may have additional accessibility codes.
The book closes with remarks on the profession, including the idea that architects should keep learning and integrating a broad knowledge base throughout their careers.

Endnote: key takeaways from the book’s spirit

Architecture is as much about the experiential and narrative aspects of space as about form and structure.
Clear ideas, disciplined drawing, and honest representations help communicate design intent and enable a project to be understood, critiqued, and refined.
Creativity in architecture arises from disciplined engagement with constraints, thoughtful framing of views, and a willingness to iterate and evolve a parti as new information becomes available.