Causes and Effects of Western Settlement: 1860-1898

The Drivers of Western Expansion and the Homestead Act ($1862$)

• Geographic Context of the Great Plains: The Great Plains is characterized as a vast region of flat grasslands representing the Western frontier of the United States during the late nineteenth century.

• The Homestead Act ($1862$): This landmark federal legislation was a primary catalyst for westward migration.

  • Eligibility: The act stipulated that any loyal citizen of the United States could occupy a plot of land.

  • Land Allotment: Each eligible settler was granted $160$ acres of land.

  • The Five-Year Improvement Clause: To grant full ownership (the settler becomes the official owner), the land had to be "improved" over a period of $5$ years.

  • Definitions of "Improvement": Based on the act, improvement was specifically defined as building a permanent home on the property and successfully growing crops.

  • Scale of Impact: Ultimately, approximately $1.4$ million individual homesteads were granted under this program.

• Demographic Shifts:

  • European Immigration: The promise of land ownership served as a major "pull factor" for immigrants traveling from Europe.

  • Exodusters: This term refers to African Americans who migrated from states along the Mississippi River to Kansas in the late nineteenth century, seeking relief from the post-Civil War South and taking advantage of the Homestead Act.

Government Sponsorship and the Role of Railroads

• Transportation Infrastructure as an Economic Link: The federal government provided significant funding for transportation links between the Northeast and the West. This was intended to create an integrated economic connection, allowing for the transport of crops and manufactured goods.

• Corporate Influence of Railroad Companies:

  • Railroad (RR) companies were major landowners, purchasing vast tracts from the government.

  • These companies competed fiercely for the most popular and lucrative routes.

  • The establishment of towns often followed railroad lines, as companies planned settlements to increase the value of their holdings.

• Promotion and Advertising: Government and railroad advertisements promised great wealth and prosperity to those who moved. These ads were often designed to convince individuals to leave the "comforts of home" for the economic opportunities of the frontier.

• Policy Objectives: Westward expansion was encouraged by the federal government as a strategic move to spread a free-market economy across the continent.

Federal Native American Policy and the Reservation System

• Territorial Displacement: As settlers moved West, they required more land, leading to a federal policy of pushing Native American tribes onto reservations.

• Definition of Reservations: Land specifically set aside by the government for the relocation and containment of Native American tribes.

• The Black Hills Conflict ($1875$):

  • The Black Hills of South Dakota were considered sacred ground to the Sioux people.

  • Catalyst for Conflict: In $1875$, gold was discovered in the Black Hills, leading to an immediate influx of white settlers and miners.

  • Pressure from the U.S. Army: By $1876$, the conflict escalated as the U.S. Army began pressuring the Sioux to vacate the area and move to reservations.

• Perspective of Red Cloud (Sioux Chief): Red Cloud articulated the despair caused by this encroachment, stating that the "white men have crowded the Indians back year by year." He noted that the loss of the last hunting grounds would lead to the starvation of women and children, and expressed a preference for "dying fighting rather than by starvation."

Major Conflicts and Resistance Efforts

• Battle of Little Big Horn ($1876$):

  • A significant engagement where Sioux leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse successfully defeated General Custer and the U.S. Army.

  • Despite this victory, the military pressure continued; in $1877$, Crazy Horse was captured and killed, and the Sioux were ultimately forced onto a reservation.

• Nez Percé and Chief Joseph’s Rebellion ($1877$): An instance of tribal resistance against forced relocation.

• Significant Historical Battle Sites and Incidents:

  • Chivington Massacre ($1864$)

  • Fetterman Massacre ($1866$)

  • Red River War ($1869-1874$)

• Battle of Wounded Knee ($1890$):

  • This event marked a period of ongoing unrest and followed the death of Sitting Bull.

  • While the U.S. Army was attempting to disarm a group of Sioux warriors near Wounded Knee Creek, confusion led to shots being fired.

  • The Army responded by firing machine guns into the camp.

  • Casualties: Between $150$ and $300$ people were killed, including many unarmed individuals, women, and children.

The Dawes Act ($1887$) and Mandatory Assimilation

• The Goal of "Americanization": The Dawes Act was designed to forcibly assimilate Native Americans into Western culture by abolishing traditional tribal structures.

• Allotment System: Instead of tribal land ownership, the act partitioned reservation land into individual family plots. Each family was given $160$ acres with the expectation that they would become independent farmers.

• Incentive for Citizenship: Native Americans who accepted these land allotments and adopted "civilized" life were offered U.S. citizenship.

• Structural Failures of the Dawes Act:

  • Environmental Obstacles: Much of the land allocated to Native American families was infertile, making it impossible to grow sustainable crops.

  • Cultural Mismatch: The act ignored the cultural traditions of many tribes who were historically hunters and gatherers rather than sedentary farmers.