APP 006 M1 - M6.docx

MODULE 1

Research

Is a systematic and organized process of collecting, organizing, analyzing and interpreting data to find answers to people's queries.

AIMS OF RESEARCH

Verification Of Existing Knowledge

Verifying or proving the veracity of existing theories or knowledge. This may lead to development of new ideas, strengthening a current knowledge, or debunking a theory.

Acquisition Of New Knowledge

Research brings forth new ideas regarding a theory or even create a totally new theory.

Application Of New Knowledge

Once new ideas or innovations are proven true, they are then utilized and translated to something useful to humankind. It is only through utilizing the results of research that one can truly fulfill the ultimate process of research, that is, to alleviate people's quality of life.

Advancement Of Research's Expertise

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

Exploration Research

Is also known as explanatory investigation. It seeks to find more information about a topic and a broader perspective or additional knowledge to what is currently known.

Description Descriptive Research

To give additional information on newly discovered ideas that are results of exploration.

Explanation Explanatory Research

Looking at how things are connected and how they interact. It aims to explain relationships existing between variables, quantitatively and qualitatively.

CHARACTERISTIC OF RESEARCH

1. Realistic Research

Is a realistic undertaking that must result to empirical data. Empirical data are those derived from actual observations of a phenomenon, interviews of people who have witnessed an incident, analysis of first-hand documents sources, excavation of artifacts and other actions that yeild valid evidences of one's investigation.

2. Logical

Research follows valid definite principles, frameworks and procedures. There are logical and ethical approaches to search for answers to a specific research question. Failure to follow these procedures correctly may yeild invalid and unreliable outcomes.

3. Cyclical Research

Starts with a problem and ends with another. As soon as a research question is answered, other questions may arise. This process continues until such time that a purified body of knowledge is attained.

4. Analytical

After employing strictly and correctly the predetermined procedure and gathering are empirical data, the latter must be analyzed to elicit the desired meaning from the obtained information. It is only through this process that research results become relevant not only to the people who participated in the investigation but also those who share similar characteristics. Proper analysis of the data should be done before making final conclusions.

5. Objective

Objectivity is defined as the lack of bias or prejudice. Analysis and interpretation of data, and drawing out implications from research data must be free from alterations to favor a certain hypothesis, a personality, or an organization.

6. Critical

The research is said to be critical when the researcher is careful and precise in processing ideas and judgements.

7. Replicable

Research procedures must be written clearly and chronologically for it to be replicable; such that other researcher can redo or repeat the investigation with the intent of verifying the generated information.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative research

is a way of studying people and their experiences by using methods like talking to them, observing their actions, and analyzing what they say. It helps us understand the deeper meaning and context of human behavior and social situations without just relying on numbers.

Quantitative research

is about studying things by collecting and analyzing numbers. It helps find patterns and trends, giving a measurable and objective view of what's being studied.

Mixed

Combination of Qualitative and Quantitative Method.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Methods or procedures of data gathering include items like age, gender, educational status, among others, that call for measurable characteristics of the population.
Standardized instruments guide data collection; thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data.
Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collected in order to show trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the evidence collected.
A large population yields more reliable data, but principles of random sampling must be strictly followed to prevent researcher's bias.
Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus, reinforcing validity of findings.
Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery.

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGTH

Quantitative research design is the most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a mee hypothesis or to disproving it.
Because of bigger number of the sample from a population, the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid.
Quantitative experiments filter out external factors, if properly designed. Thus, the results gained can be seen, as real and unbiased.
Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to more reliable results.

WEAKNESSES

Quantitative research can be costly, difficult, and time-consuming. It may be quite difficult for some since not all researchers are statisticians.
Quantitative studies require extensive statistical treatment requiring strict standards. These protocols must be followed strictly in order to confirm the results. When ambiguities in some findings surface, retesting and refinement of the design call for another investment in time and resources to polish the results.
Quantitative methods also tend to turn out only proved or unproven results, leaving little room for uncertainty, or grey areas. For the social sciences, education, anthropology and psychology, human nature is a lot more complex than just a simple yes or no response.

MODULE 3

Brainstorming

can be a powerful tool in Practical Research 2, helping you generate innovative ideas, explore new avenues, and refine your research focus.

8 steps in planning a research topic:

1. Find an interesting topic related to your strand

2. Think a particular question

3. Search the literature

4. Test the research question

5. Measure the research question

6. Plan a feasible study

7. Follow ethical standards

8. Write a research protocol

Find an interesting topic related to your strand

Brainstorm - use maps and lists (here, we need to list down a particular topic and its sub-topics.

Think a particular question

The most important thing in research is to have a very specific question that you want to ask.

Search the Literature

-This is important because it will give you an idea of what other people have researched on your topic and will give you ideas about how to answer your own question.

-It may able you to construct a hypothesis of your research problem

How will you test your question?

There are a lot of methods that you could use:

Laboratory experiments
Observational exercises
Questionnaires
The method that you're going to use should answer your question.

How will you measure your test results?

It is important to know how you will measure your results.

What kind of tools or measurement you are going to use?

Numbers (quantitative)
Using people's opinions? (qualitative)
What will your outcomes measures be?

Is what I am planning feasible?

What time constraints do I have?
What equipment will I need?

Is what I am planning ethical?

Will my research contribute something useful to society?
Does my research involve any risk to myself or anyone else?
Is my research dangerous?

Write a 'research protocol'

It is important to write down exactly what you are planning to do and how you are planning to do it.
This is so that somebody else would be able to repeat your experiment, and also so that you remember what you are supposed to be doing!

MODULE 4

HOW TO NARROW DOWN A BROAD TOPIC:

State your broad topic
Describe your broad area more specifically.
Ask familiar questions such as what, who, where, when, why and how.
Name a specific topic to your broad topic to make it a focused topic.

BROAD TOPIC -means something that covers a lot of area

NARROW TOPIC -means it has focus and the choices available are defined and specific.

WHEN IS A TOPIC TOO BROAD:

when it cannot be covered in detail in your assignment
when all you can write are general statements about a general subject
when it is hard to research because there is so much information

SOURCES OF RESEARCH UNDERTAKING:

PRIMARY RESOURCES

These are original materials that have been collected specially for the purpose in mind. They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format.
They present original thinking, report a discovery, or share new information.
These data have not been published yet and it is more reliable, authentic and objective. It has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore, its validity is greater than secondary data
These are original materials on which another research is based. They are from the time period involved and have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation.
Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources.

EXAMPLES:

Literary creation: novels, short stories, poems, etc.
Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under study)
Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
Internet communications on email

SECONDARY SOURCES

These are data that has been already collected by and readily available from other sources.
These are more quickly available than primary data.
They are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what some define as a secondary source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is everything.

EXAMPLE:

Commentaries, criticisms
Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary)
Literary criticism such as Journal articles
Magazine and newspaper articles

TERTIARY SOURCES

These are the indexes, dictionaries, guides and bibliographies/ references that aid the researcher in using primary and secondary sources.
consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources.

EXAMPLES:

• Directories

• Fact books

• Guidebooks

NON-DOCUMENTARY SOURCES

These are unpublished forms of communication and information, which can be interviews, conversations with professionals, students and other experts in the field.
Non-documentary sources are a valuable and often overlooked resource in research.
They offer different perspectives and firsthand experiences that can complement and enrich your study.

EXAMPLES:

• Interviews

• Field work Oral histories

• observations

ONLINE SEARCHING

It is the information on the internet through search engines such as Google, Yahoo and bing

EXAMPLES:

• Government websites

• Institutional repositories

• Public forums and social media

MODULE 5

Research Topic

The first challenge of any researcher is the identification of a research topic
A research topic or problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer in the form of scientific inquiry.
Topics or problems are general questions about relations among variables, or characteristics of the phenomenon which a researcher needs to undertake.

Sources of Research Topics or Problems

The following are the things that may be considered before starting the research

Prevailing theories or philosophy
Observations, intuitions or a combination of both
Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem that interests a student-researcher most
Fields of interest or specialization or event from related fields
Existing problems in the classroom / school / campus / university which one may want to solve are good sources of research problems
Existing needs of the community or society
Repetition or extension of investigations already conducted or maybe an offshoot of studies underway (Angeles, 1966, p. 86)
Related studies and literatures
Advice of authorities or experts from funding agencies
offshoots of friendly conversation
incidental from interesting topics of professors during the course meeting session.

Selecting the Research Topic

In choosing a research problem, be guided by the following criteria:

1. It should be something new or different from what has already been written about

2. It must be original

3. It should be significant to the field of study or discipline

4. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity

5. It should be of researcher's interest and researcher must be with the topic

6.It should be a modest one for a beginner to be caned on within a limited period of time

7. It should be clear, not ambiguous

8It should be specific, not general

9. It should consider the training and personal qualifications of the researcher

10. It should consider the availability of data involved in the study and the methods and techniques to be employed in gathering them

11. It should consider the availability of effective instruments for gathering the data and their treatment.

12. It should consider the financial capacity of the researcher to support the project.

13. It should consider the time factor involved in the undertaking

The starting point of any research is the identification and definition of the research problem.

This step is the most difficult one because, while there are the same guidelines in the selection and narrowing down of the problem, these are unlike the techniques and skills in the choice of research design and measurements, Often, these are only based on interest, skills or workability.

The research paradigm acts as a fundamental framework or worldview that shapes how researchers

encompasses core assumptions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and how research interacts with these concepts.
Choosing the appropriate paradigm shapes every aspect of your research, from your research question to your data collection and analysis.
Understanding different paradigms helps you critically evaluate research and assess its strengths and limitations.
Research paradigms are not static; they evolve over time and can be challenged and contested.

Now that you know your topic and determined your variables, you would need to start to develop your statement of the problem and hypothesis. Your problem statement and hypothesis are extremely easy to write if you have determined your independent and dependent variables.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

This statement is ALWAYS written as a question.
The question should always start with either which or how.
The one you choose will depend on your independent and dependent variable.
The form should be Which or How will the independent variable affect the dependent variable.

Your next step is to write a hypothesis.

HYPOTHESIS

is very much like the problem statement except it is the answer to your question.
The hypothesis must be a cause-and-effect statement.
It only needs to be one sentence long but can be two sentences.
The first is "If ... (manipulated variable), then (responding variable)" and the second sentence is why you think what you do Make sure the hypothesis only predicts one outcome. Then, you will clearly know whether the hypothesis is right or not.

HYPOTHESIS

It is a tentative answer to a research problem
It is a prediction of an expected outcome in terms of significant effect, difference or relationship
It provides the basis for the testing of the statistical significance of the findings of the study

Null Hypothesis (Ho)

It states the absence of relationship, effect or difference between dependent and independent variables. The researcher tries to disprove nullify.
It always stated in a negative form.

Ex. There is no significant relationship between smoking and lung cancer.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)

It always predicts that there will be a relationship, effect or difference between the variables being studies.
The researchers try to prove. It is an affirmation of the existence of observed phenomena.

Ex. Smoking leads to lung cancer.

Guidelines in Formulating Hypothesis:

Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence.
Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, known facts, previous studies, or your own experience and wisdom
Establish a logical relationship between the hypothesis and the research problem.
Have your hypothesis predict the nature of relationship between or among variables.
Determine the possibility of having some means of testing, analyzing, and investigating your hypotheses.
Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact, or specific language in stating the hypotheses.
Variables used in the study are stated in their operational forms.

Example:

The study aimed to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance of Senior High students

Ho: There is no significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance of senior high students.

Ha: There is a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance of senior high students.

Lastly, defining terms in research is crucial. Here are some aspects of defining terms in research:

Purpose:

Clarify key concepts:

Clearly define important terms used throughout your research to eliminate ambiguity and ensure consistent understanding.

Establish boundaries:

Define the specific meaning you will be using for certain terms within your study, even if they have broader definitions in general.

Connect with existing literature:

Align your definitions with those established in related research or theoretical frameworks.

Facilitate effective communication:

Ensure readers from different backgrounds understand your specific usage of terms and avoid misinterpretations.

Methods:

Operational definitions:

Provide concrete and measurable definitions that specify how you will operationalize the term in your research methodology

Theoretical definitions:

Ground your definitions in relevant theoretical frameworks and explain how they inform your study.

Comparative definitions:

Contrast your definition with alternative interpretations or common misconceptions to avoid confusion.

Examples and illustrations:

Use concrete examples and illustrations to further clarify the meaning of your terms, especially for abstract concepts.

MODULE 6

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY AND SCOPE AND LIMITATION

The researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the study.
He/She describes how the problem will be solved and specifically pinpoints who will benefit from such findings or results.
Usually, the beneficiaries of the study are those experts concerned about the problem, the administrators or policy-makers who make the decisions or implement programs, the subjects themselves, future researchers and those who are directly or indirectly affected by the problem.
One may also look into any contribution of the study to the field of specialization or discipline, any advancement or new knowledge that the study contributes to the science or the state-of-the-art. In this portion of the study, one may also state the specific sectors who will benefit from the study.
This part also justifies the rationale of the undertaking.

Significance of the Study

is a portion of the study where researcher will tell the importance and purpose of the study.
This portion notes the benefits of the study either to a body or scientific knowledge, to practitioners in the area of research or to any other group which will benefit from the results.

2 Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer to the statement of the problem

Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution of your study.
You can do this by observing a one-to-one correspondence between the statement of the problem and the significance of the study.

Identity the beneficiaries and the benefits they can get from the study.

It can be written from general to specific contribution (deductive) or specific to general contribution (inductive).

Writing the significance is importance to society as a whole

then proceed general contribution of your study, such as its importance to society as a whole, then proceed downwards
towards its contribution to individuals and that may include yourself as a researcher.
You start off broadly then taper off gradually to a specific group or person. Coupled with reference to the problem statement, this effectively stimulates the mind to think in a deductive mode, i.e., from general to specific.

Significance of the Study

The inductive way of writing the significance of the study may start from the individual contribution down to the community or society as a whole.
The techniques mentioned above will prevent your mind from wandering wildly or aimlessly as you explore the significance of your study.