1. 6 USSR and Eastern Europe

Focus Points:

Opposition to Soviet control in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), and Soviet reactions.
Similarities between events in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968).
Reasons for the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.
Significance of Solidarity in Poland for the decline of Soviet influence.
Gorbachev's role in the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

Soviet Sphere of Influence: Stalin aimed to establish Eastern Europe as a Soviet sphere of influence, politically and economically dominated by the USSR.
Control Mechanisms: Communist governments in Eastern European countries were tightly controlled by Stalin, primarily through the Cominform.
Buffer Zone: Eastern Europe served as a buffer against potential attacks on the USSR.
Resource Exploitation: Stalin aimed to utilize Eastern European resources to rebuild the USSR's industries and economy after the war with Germany, facilitated by COMECON.

Definition: Communist Information Bureau.
Establishment: Set up by Stalin in 1947.
Purpose: To coordinate communist governments in Eastern Europe.
Location: Originally based in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, but moved to Bucharest, Romania in 1948 after Yugoslavia's expulsion due to its refusal to comply with Soviet demands.
Functions: Organized meetings and issued instructions to communist governments based on Soviet directives.

Definition: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.
Establishment: Established in 1949.
Purpose: To coordinate industries and trade in Eastern European countries.
Trade Orientation: Member countries were encouraged to trade primarily with each other rather than with the West.
Benefits for USSR: Comecon disproportionately favored the USSR by providing it with a market for its goods and a cheap supply of raw materials. For example, Poland was forced to sell its coal to the USSR at $1/10$ of its open market value.
Socialist Bank: A bank for socialist countries was established in 1964.

Initial Hope: Initially, some people in Eastern Europe were hopeful about communism, inspired by the Soviet Union's industrial growth.
Reality: The reality of Soviet control differed significantly from initial hopes.
- Freedom: Loss of free speech and democratic rights. Censorship, imprisonment for critics, and restricted travel to Western Europe. Protests, such as those in East Germany in 1953, were suppressed.
- Wealth: Economic recovery occurred between 1945 and 1955, but wages in Eastern Europe soon lagged behind other countries. Shortages of basic necessities like coal, and high costs for clothing and shoes.
- Consumer Goods: Lack of access to consumer goods such as radios, electric kettles, and televisions, which were becoming common in the West. Economies were geared towards benefiting the Soviet Union, focusing on industrial production rather than consumer goods.

Expectations: After Stalin's death in 1953, there were hopes for a more relaxed rule in Eastern Europe.
Khrushchev's Rise: Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the new leader in 1955.
Khrushchev's Policies:
- Advocated peaceful coexistence with the West.
- Promised to improve the lives of ordinary citizens.
- Closed down Cominform and released thousands of political prisoners.
- Denounced Stalin's harsh rule in a speech in 1956.
Impact on Eastern Europe: Khrushchev's new approach encouraged critics of communist rule. Demonstrations broke out in Poland in the summer of 1956, demanding reforms and the appointment of Wladyslaw Gomulka as leader.
Polish Crisis: Violent clashes occurred between protesters and Polish police. Khrushchev compromised and accepted Gomulka as the new Polish leader, while simultaneously moving Soviet tanks and troops to the Polish border to emphasize the limits of compromise.
Khrushchev's Dilemma: The world watched to determine whether Khrushchev was a compromiser with new ideas or a Soviet leader willing to use force. The answer became clear during the crisis in Hungary in October 1956.