PSYCH FR
👇
🧠 Introduction to Psychology
Q: What is psychology?
A: The scientific study of mind and behaviour.
Q: What is the mind in psychology?
A: Private events happening inside a person, unseen by others.
Q: What is behaviour in psychology?
A: Public actions or words that can be observed by others.
⚖ Dualism vs Materialism
Q: What is philosophical dualism?
A: The belief that the body and mind are separate entities.
Q: Who proposed that the pineal gland was the "seat of the soul"?
A: René Descartes (1596–1650).
Q: What did Gilbert Ryle call the mind in relation to the body?
A: “The ghost in the machine.”
Q: What is philosophical materialism?
A: The belief that the body and mind are one; all mental phenomena are reducible to physical phenomena.
Q: According to materialism, what is the mind?
A: The activity of the brain.
👁 Realism vs Idealism
Q: What is philosophical realism?
A: The idea that perception of the world is produced entirely by sensory information — a faithful copy of reality.
Q: Which philosopher is associated with realism?
A: John Locke (1632–1704).
Q: What is philosophical idealism?
A: The belief that perception is the brain’s interpretation of sensory input — more like a painting than a photograph.
Q: Which philosopher is associated with idealism?
A: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804).
📘 Empiricism vs Nativism
Q: What is philosophical empiricism?
A: The idea that all knowledge is acquired through experience.
Q: What is "tabula rasa"?
A: Latin for “blank slate,” meaning people are born without built-in knowledge.
Q: What is philosophical nativism?
A: The belief that some knowledge is innate and hardwired into the brain.
⏳ History of Psychology
Q: When did psychology begin as a science?
A: About 150 years ago.
Q: What were the major movements over time?
A: 1800s: Structuralism vs Functionalism
Early 1900s: Psychoanalysis vs Behaviourism
Late 1900s: Cognitive Revolution
🧩 Structuralism
Q: What is structuralism?
A: An approach that analyzed the mind’s basic elements through introspection.
Q: Who founded the first psychology lab?
A: Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 at the University of Leipzig.
Q: What is introspection?
A: Systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.
Q: Who developed introspection further?
A: Edward Titchener (1867–1927).
Q: What was the main problem with structuralism?
A: Inner experiences are private and subjective, making verification impossible.
🧠 Functionalism
Q: What is functionalism?
A: The study of the functions and adaptive purposes of mental processes.
Q: Who is associated with functionalism?
A: William James (1842–1910).
Q: What concept influenced functionalism?
A: Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
Q: What is “fitness” in evolutionary terms?
A: The number of offspring produced, not physical strength.
💭 Psychoanalysis
Q: What is hysteria?
A: A loss of function with no physical cause, often relieved by hypnosis.
Q: Who studied hysteria through hypnosis?
A: Jean-Martin Charcot and Pierre Janet.
Q: What did Freud believe caused hysteria?
A: Unconscious painful experiences.
Q: What is psychoanalysis?
A: A therapeutic approach focusing on bringing unconscious material to conscious awareness.
Q: Who were notable figures in the psychoanalytic movement besides Freud?
A: Carl Jung and Alfred Adler.
Q: What were criticisms of psychoanalysis?
A: Lack of empirical evidence, subjectivity, and unfalsifiable theories.
🧬 Behaviourism
Q: What is behaviourism?
A: The study of observable behaviour and its relationship to stimuli.
Q: Who discovered classical conditioning?
A: Ivan Pavlov, through his study of salivation in dogs.
Q: Who founded behaviourism as a psychological movement?
A: John B. Watson (1878–1958).
Q: What did B.F. Skinner contribute to behaviourism?
A: The principle of reinforcement — rewarded behaviour is repeated.
🔷 Other Early 1900s Theories
Q: What is Gestalt psychology?
A: The idea that we perceive the whole rather than the sum of its parts.
Q: Who founded Gestalt psychology?
A: Max Wertheimer (1880–1943).
Q: What did Sir Frederic Bartlett study?
A: Memory errors — he argued that memory is reconstructive, not a recording.
👶 Developmental Psychology
Q: What does developmental psychology study?
A: How psychological phenomena change over the life span.
Q: Who proposed stages of cognitive development?
A: Jean Piaget.
Q: What are schemas?
A: Mental frameworks used to organize knowledge.
Q: What are assimilation and accommodation?
A: Assimilation: fitting new info into existing schemas.
Accommodation: changing schemas to fit new info.
Q: Who emphasized social interaction in learning?
A: Lev Vygotsky.
👥 Social Psychology
Q: What is social psychology?
A: The study of the causes and consequences of sociality.
Q: Who said behaviour depends on one’s subjective construal of the environment?
A: Kurt Lewin.
Q: What did Solomon Asch study?
A: How people form impressions and the primacy effect.
💻 The Cognitive Revolution
Q: What did Noam Chomsky argue against?
A: Behaviourism’s inability to explain language learning.
Q: What is universal grammar?
A: An innate ability to acquire language.
Q: What is cognitive psychology?
A: The study of human information processing.
Q: How did computers influence cognitive psychology?
A: They provided a model for understanding mental processes like memory and computation.
🧬 Evolutionary Psychology
Q: What does evolutionary psychology study?
A: How the mind has been shaped by natural selection.
Q: What did John Garcia’s research show?
A: Organisms are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations, like taste aversion.
🧠 Neuroscience
Q: What does the phrase “the mind is what the brain does” mean?
A: Mental processes arise from brain activity.
Q: What is cognitive neuroscience?
A: The study of the relationship between the brain and the mind.
Q: What is behavioural neuroscience?
A: The study of the relationship between the brain and behaviour.
Q: What technology allows us to study the brain in action?
A: fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging).
🌎 Cultural Psychology
Q: What is culture in psychology?
A: Shared values, traditions, and beliefs of a group.
Q: What does cultural psychology study?
A: How culture influences mental life.
🎓 Becoming a Psychologist
Q: What degrees are needed to become a psychologist?
A: A Master’s or PhD.
Q: What are major professional organizations in the U.S.?
A: APA (American Psychological Association) and APS (Association for Psychological Science).
Q: What are major Canadian psychology organizations?
A: CPA (Canadian Psychological Association), CSBBCS, and CAN-ACN.
🧩 Subfields of Psychology
Q: What do clinical psychologists do?
A: Assess and treat people with psychological issues.
Q: What do school psychologists do?
A: Offer guidance to students, parents, and teachers.
Q: What do industrial/organizational psychologists do?
A: Help businesses hire and improve performance.
Q: What do sport psychologists do?
A: Help athletes train and perform.
Q: What do forensic psychologists do?
A: Assist courts and attorneys.
Q: What do consumer psychologists do?
A: Help companies market and develop products.
Q: What do professors and researchers do?
A: Conduct research and teach in academic settings.
👇
🧩 Everyday Reasoning vs Scientific Reasoning
Q: What is everyday reasoning?
A: Using personal observations or stories to justify beliefs (e.g., “it looks like it may rain”).
Q: What is scientific reasoning?
A: A structured, systematic process that relies on data and probability (e.g., “there’s an 80% chance of rain”).
Q: What do both everyday and scientific reasoning use?
A: Induction — drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
🔁 Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
Q: What is inductive reasoning?
A: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
Q: What is deductive reasoning?
A: Using general rules or principles to make specific predictions.
❌ Falsifiability
Q: What is falsifiability?
A: The idea that scientific claims must be capable of being proven false.
Q: Who proposed falsifiability as a key feature of science?
A: Karl Popper (1902–1994).
Q: What makes a claim unscientific?
A: If there is no way to disprove it.
👁 Empiricism and Dogmatism
Q: What is empiricism?
A: The belief that accurate knowledge about the world can be acquired through observation and experience.
Q: What is dogmatism?
A: The tendency to cling to one’s beliefs regardless of evidence.
Q: What is the scientific method?
A: A procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts.
⚙ The Scientific Method
Q: What are the main steps of the scientific method?
A:
Develop a theory.
Derive a falsifiable hypothesis.
Test the hypothesis by observing the world and collecting evidence.
Q: What is a theory?
A: An explanation of a natural phenomenon.
Q: What is a hypothesis?
A: A falsifiable prediction made by a theory.
Q: Can a scientific theory ever be proven true?
A: No, theories can only be supported by evidence — not proven.
Q: What makes a strong scientific theory?
A: It survives repeated attempts at falsification.
👀 The Art of Looking
Q: What is the empirical method?
A: A set of rules and techniques for observation.
Q: What are the two main kinds of methods in science?
A:
Methods of observation: Discover what people do.
Methods of explanation: Discover why people do it.
Q: What are the limitations of everyday observation?
A: It’s often inconsistent and incomplete.
Q: What are scientific techniques that overcome these limitations?
A: Measurement and description.
📏 Operational Definitions
Q: What is an operational definition?
A: A description of a property in measurable terms — translating abstract concepts into measurable variables.
Q: What is required once an operational definition is established?
A: A detector — a method or instrument to measure it.
Q: Can there be multiple operational definitions for the same concept?
A: Yes, researchers choose based on purpose, ethics, cost, and available technology.
🧱 Construct Validity
Q: What is a construct?
A: A theoretical concept that is not directly measurable (e.g., intelligence, happiness).
Q: What is construct validity?
A: The degree to which a measurement truly reflects the theoretical concept it is intended to measure.
Q: What causes poor construct validity?
A: When a measure is overly simplistic, narrow, or fails to capture the full concept.
📊 Key Features of a Good Detector
Q: What is reliability?
A: The consistency of a measure — producing the same result under the same conditions.
Q: What is power?
A: The sensitivity of a measure — its ability to detect changes or differences when they exist.
👥 Demand Characteristics and Participant Bias
Q: What are demand characteristics?
A: Aspects of a study that cause participants to behave as they think they should.
Q: How do psychologists reduce participant bias?
A:
Use naturalistic observation.
Ensure privacy or anonymity.
Measure involuntary behaviours (e.g., pupil dilation).
Use unawareness (hide the true purpose until after).
Q: What must researchers do after using deception?
A: Debrief participants and allow them to withdraw their data.
👁🗨️ Observer Bias
Q: What is observer bias?
A: When an observer’s expectations influence what they see or record.
Q: Why does observer bias occur?
A: Expectations can influence both observations and reality.
👨👩👧 Populations and Samples
Q: What is a population?
A: The complete collection of people or things being studied.
Q: What is a sample?
A: A subset of a population used for study.
Q: What makes a sample representative?
A:
Diversity: Reflects the population’s characteristics.
Random selection: Equal chance for all individuals.
Size: Large enough to capture variation.
📉 Descriptive Statistics
Q: What are descriptive statistics?
A: Methods for summarizing key characteristics of data.
Q: What are measures of central tendency?
A: Mean (average), median (middle), and mode (most common).
Q: What is variability?
A: The extent to which data values differ.
Q: What are two common measures of variability?
A: Range and standard deviation (SD).
Q: What does a high standard deviation indicate?
A: High variability in data.
📈 Distributions
Q: What is a frequency distribution?
A: A graph showing how often each value occurs in a dataset.
Q: What is a normal distribution?
A: A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve where mean = median = mode.
Q: What is a positively skewed distribution?
A: Data with most values low and a long right tail; Mean > Median > Mode.
Q: What is a negatively skewed distribution?
A: Data with most values high and a long left tail; Mean < Median < Mode.
🔍 Variables and Correlation
Q: What is a variable?
A: Any property or characteristic that can vary (e.g., age, height, anxiety level).
Q: What is a correlation?
A: A relationship where changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.
Q: What does correlation NOT imply?
A: Causation.
Q: What is a positive correlation?
A: When both variables increase or decrease together.
Q: What is a negative correlation?
A: When one variable increases as the other decreases.
Q: What is the correlation coefficient (r)?
A: A number between –1 and +1 that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation.
Q: What does the sign of r indicate?
A: Direction — positive (+) or negative (–).
Q: What does the value of r indicate?
A: Strength — closer to 1 or –1 means stronger correlation.
⚠ Spurious Correlations
Q: What is a spurious correlation?
A: When two variables appear related but are not — the relationship is coincidental or caused by a third factor.
Q: Why are spurious correlations misleading?
A: They create the illusion of causation where none exists.
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🧠 Scientific Reasoning
Everyday vs Scientific Reasoning
Everyday reasoning: Based on personal observation or anecdotes.
Scientific reasoning: Systematic and structured; uses controlled methods.
Both use induction — drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
Inductive: Specific → General (patterns to theory)
Deductive: General → Specific (theory to predictions)
Falsifiability (Karl Popper)
A scientific claim must be falsifiable — capable of being proven wrong.
Science tests theories; it never proves them absolutely true.
Theories survive repeated attempts at falsification but are never final truths.
🔍 Empiricism and the Scientific Method
Empiricism: Knowledge through observation and experience.
Dogmatism: Stubbornly clinging to beliefs.
Scientific Method Steps:
Develop a theory (explanation of a natural phenomenon).
Derive a falsifiable hypothesis (testable prediction).
Test it using observation and empirical evidence.
👁 The Art of Looking
Observation Methods
Everyday observation: Inconsistent, incomplete.
Scientific observation: Uses measurement and description.
Operational Definition
Translating abstract concepts into measurable terms.
Requires:
A clear definition
A detector (measurement tool)
Construct validity: How well the operational definition represents the theoretical concept.
Good Detector Qualities
Reliability: Consistency of measurement.
Power: Sensitivity to detect the specified condition.
👤 Participant & Observer Bias
Demand Characteristics
Participants act how they think researchers want them to.
Reduced by:
Naturalistic observation
Privacy & anonymity
Unawareness or mild deception (followed by debriefing)
Observer Bias
Expectations influence what is seen or recorded.
👥 Descriptive Methods
Population: Whole group of interest.
Sample: Subset used for study.
Representative sample: Random, diverse, and large enough to reflect the population.
📊 Descriptive Statistics
Central Tendency
Mean – average
Median – middle value
Mode – most frequent value
Variability
Range: Max – Min
Standard Deviation (SD): Spread around the mean
High SD → High variability
Distribution Shapes
Normal distribution: Mean = Median = Mode
Skewed distributions:
Negative skew → Tail on left (Mean < Median < Mode)
Positive skew → Tail on right (Mode < Median < Mean)
🔗 Correlation
Definition: Relationship between two variables that vary together.
Direction:
Positive: Both increase/decrease together.
Negative: One increases while the other decreases.
Strength: Measured by r (-1 to +1)
Spurious correlation: Apparent link due to coincidence or third variable.
⚗ Experimentation
Purpose
Establish causal relationships between variables.
Variables
Independent variable (IV): Manipulated (cause).
Dependent variable (DV): Measured (effect).
Steps
Manipulate IV (create conditions).
Measure DV.
Compare outcomes.
Assignment
Random assignment: Chance decides group → reduces bias.
Self-selection: Participant chooses → introduces bias.
Correlation ≠ Causation
Correlation shows relationship, not cause.
📈 Statistical Testing
Hypotheses
Null (H₀): No relationship or effect.
Alternative (H₁): Relationship or effect exists (directional or non-directional).
p-value
Probability of observing data if H₀ is true.
p < .05: Statistically significant (unlikely due to chance).
p > .05: Likely due to chance → fail to reject H₀.
Errors
Type I: False positive (think effect exists when it doesn’t).
Type II: False negative (miss an effect that exists).
🧩 Validity and Generalizability
Internal validity: Confidence that IV caused DV change.
External validity: Generalizability to real-world settings.
Trade-off: high internal validity → less external validity.
Replication: Repeating studies to verify reliability.
2015 “Replication Crisis” → many psych studies failed to replicate.
⚖ Ethics in Research
Tri-Council Policy (Canada)
Core principles:
Respect for persons (autonomy)
Concern for welfare (minimize harm)
Justice (fair treatment and distribution)
Human Participants
Informed consent: Must know all potential risks; can withdraw anytime.
Assent: Needed from minors (plus guardian consent).
Freedom from coercion: No undue pressure or extreme compensation.
Protection from harm: Use the safest method.
Risk-benefit analysis: Justify even small risks.
Deception: Only when necessary, followed by debriefing.
Confidentiality: Protect participant data.
Research Ethics Boards (REBs)
Must approve all research before it begins.
🐭 Animal Research Ethics
Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC): The 3 Rs
Replacement: Use alternatives when possible.
Reduction: Use minimum number of animals.
Refinement: Minimize pain and distress.
📜 Scientific Integrity
Report results truthfully.
Credit contributions fairly.
Share data openly.
👇🧠 Chemical Signaling Between Neurons
Q: What are neurotransmitters?
A: Chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites.Q: What are terminal buttons?
A: Knoblike structures that branch out from an axon and release neurotransmitters.Q: What are receptors?
A: Parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and initiate or prevent a new electric signal.Q: What is the main function of neurotransmitters?
A: They transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another, affecting physical and psychological processes.Q: What can small imbalances in neurotransmitters cause?
A: Dramatic changes in behaviour and mental function.⚡ Steps of Synaptic Transmission
Q: Step 1 of synaptic transmission?
A: Neurotransmitters (NT) are stored in vesicles in the presynaptic neuron.Q: Step 2 of synaptic transmission?
A: An action potential travels down the axon and arrives at the terminal.Q: Step 3 of synaptic transmission?
A: The vesicles bind to the membrane.Q: Step 4 of synaptic transmission?
A: Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.Q: Step 5 of synaptic transmission?
A: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, initiating a new action potential.🔐 Receptors and Neurotransmitter Effects
Q: How do neurotransmitters and receptor sites interact?
A: Like a lock-and-key system.Q: What determines the effect of a neurotransmitter?
A: The receptor type, not the neurotransmitter itself.🧩 Ending Neurotransmitter Effects
Q: What are the main ways neurotransmitter effects end?
A: Reuptake, enzyme deactivation, diffusion, and autoreceptor regulation.Q: What is reuptake?
A: Neurotransmitters are absorbed by the presynaptic neuron or glial cells.Q: What is enzyme deactivation?
A: Specific enzymes break down neurotransmitters.Q: What is diffusion in neurotransmission?
A: Neurotransmitters drift out of the synapse and can no longer reach receptors.Q: What do autoreceptors do?
A: Detect excess neurotransmitter and stop further release.⚙ Types of Neurotransmitter Effects
Q: What does an excitatory neurotransmitter do?
A: Stimulates the target cell, increasing the chance of firing.Q: What does an inhibitory neurotransmitter do?
A: Hyperpolarizes the target cell, decreasing the likelihood of firing.Q: What does a modulatory neurotransmitter do?
A: Influences the effect of other messengers and affects many neurons simultaneously.💬 Major Neurotransmitters
Q: What is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain?
A: Glutamate.Q: What is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain?
A: GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid).Q: What are the functions of acetylcholine (ACh)?
A: Voluntary motor control, muscle activation, attention, learning, memory, and sleep.Q: What is serotonin involved in?
A: Mood, sleep, wakefulness, appetite, and aggression regulation.Q: What is dopamine involved in?
A: Motivation, pleasure, motor behavior, and reward-based learning.Q: What is norepinephrine responsible for?
A: Vigilance and the fight-or-flight response.Q: What are endorphins?
A: Natural painkillers (“endogenous morphine”) that reduce pain and enhance pleasure.💊 Drugs and Neurotransmitters
Q: What are agonists?
A: Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter.Q: What are antagonists?
A: Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter.Q: What do opioids do?
A: Provide pain relief and euphoria but can cause respiratory depression.Q: What is naloxone (Narcan)?
A: An opioid antagonist that reverses overdose effects and restores breathing.🧩 Organization of the Nervous System
Q: What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
A: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).Q: What does the CNS consist of?
A: The brain and spinal cord.Q: What does the PNS consist of?
A: All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.Q: What are the two parts of the PNS?
A: Somatic (voluntary control) and Autonomic (involuntary control) systems.Q: What are the two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?
A: Sympathetic (fight or flight) and Parasympathetic (rest and digest).🧍♂ Spinal Cord and Reflexes
Q: What are the main functions of the spinal cord?
A: Sensory input, information integration, and motor commands.Q: What is a spinal reflex?
A: An automatic muscle response without brain involvement.Q: What is a reflex arc?
A: The neural pathway controlling reflex actions.🧬 Endocrine System
Q: What is the endocrine system?
A: A network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.Q: What do hormones regulate?
A: Growth, metabolism, stress, sleep, reproduction, and mood.Q: What is the pituitary gland?
A: The “master gland” that regulates other glands.🧩 Divisions of the Brain
Q: What are the three main parts of the brain?
A: Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain.Q: What does the hindbrain control?
A: Breathing, heart rate, and coordination (pons, medulla, cerebellum).Q: What does the midbrain do?
A: Processes sensory and motor information (tectum and tegmentum).Q: What does the forebrain handle?
A: Higher cognitive, emotional, and sensory processing.💭 Forebrain Structures
Q: What is the thalamus responsible for?
A: Sorting and processing sensory information.Q: What does the hypothalamus regulate?
A: Homeostasis (temperature, hunger, thirst).Q: What is the limbic system involved in?
A: Emotion, learning, and memory.Q: What is the amygdala’s function?
A: Emotional processing and memory.Q: What is the hippocampus responsible for?
A: Memory formation and spatial navigation.Q: What is the corpus callosum?
A: A bundle of axons connecting the left and right hemispheres.🧠 Studying the Brain
Q: How do scientists study damaged brains?
A: By examining lesions and behavioral changes (e.g., Phineas Gage).Q: What is TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)?
A: A technique that temporarily deactivates brain areas to study their functions.Q: What are structural neuroimaging techniques?
A: CT, MRI, and DTI (show brain anatomy).Q: What are functional neuroimaging techniques?
A: PET and fMRI (show brain activity).Q: What does EEG measure?
A: Electrical activity in the brain.🧩 Cerebral Cortex and Lobes
Q: What is the function of gyri and sulci?
A: They increase brain surface area, allowing more neurons to fit.Q: What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
A: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal.Q: What is contralateral control?
A: Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.Q: What does the frontal lobe do?
A: Controls movement, decision-making, and executive functions.Q: What does the parietal lobe process?
A: Touch and spatial information.Q: What does the occipital lobe process?
A: Visual information.Q: What does the temporal lobe handle?
A: Hearing, language, and memory.Q: What is brain plasticity?
A: The brain’s ability to reorganize and change due to experience.Q: What are phantom limbs an example of?
A: Brain plasticity—continued cortical representation after limb loss.