Lecture 14: Diversity and Difference

Lecture 14 focuses on analyzing data, sociolinguistics, sociolinguistic variables, language and variety, and languages and dialects.
Relevant textbook chapters: Chapter 11 (pages 294-311 in the First Edition and 302-319 in the Second Edition).

Data example:
- A: "Ek sê bafobethu!…molweni ni alright?" (Hi guys, how are you, are you all right?)
  - Ek sê (Afrikaans for 'I say')
- B: "Ku grand akhoneks (niks, meaning ‘nothing’)" (Fine no problem)
Full case study: C. Dyers, "From Ibaru to Amajoin – Living Among Languages" (pg. 389-392 [First Edition] & pg. 401-404 [Second Edition]).

Questions to consider:
- What can you tell about the speakers? How do you know this?
- Where are the speakers located in social space? What can you tell about their racial identity, ethnic identity, social class, and gender?

Further discussion points:
- Is this type of language mixing acceptable or normal?
- Do you ever use different varieties when you speak?
- If you only use one language, do you use the formal and/or informal variety?

Initial thoughts on sociolinguistics.
Definition: Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society are intimately related (Stroud, 2014: 297).
Language reveals information about society and its members.
Sociolinguists study linguistic variation across social lines.

Linguistic variation refers to differences in language use, such as accent, pronunciation, and vocabulary.
Variation in language is not random but systematic and meaningful, reflecting different rules and norms of language use within a speech community (Stroud 2014: 299).

Sociolinguistic variables are elements of language that vary or change.
These include linguistic features like accent and lexicon that vary systematically along social dimensions such as gender, age, ethnicity, geographical region, and social class.
Sociolinguistic variables indicate a speaker's location in social space.

A language is a linguistic variety that has a distinct identity and has acquired particular social values and meanings (Stroud, 2014:303).

Beyond language labels (e.g., Afrikaans, Xhosa), there are different varieties of language with different social meanings and values (e.g., Kaaps, a non-standard variety of Afrikaans).
'Linguistic variety' refers to both dialects and languages. (Standard and non-standard Afrikaans are both linguistic varieties, each with different social meanings and values.)

A dialect is a particular form or variety of a language specific to a region or social group (e.g., Gcaleka and Ngqika varieties of isiXhosa).
In sociolinguistics, a standard language is the linguistic variety that has been standardized or used for official purposes.
- In South Africa, standard English and isiXhosa are used in schools.
A variety, when elevated, becomes a 'standard language', while other varieties remain 'dialects' and are subordinated to the standard.

Example of Standard Xhosa:
- "Ndibamba ngazibini ngxilimbela kaNtu. Xa ndichukumisa wena, ndiba nemihlali, kuba kaloku ndiyazi uba awusiyo dyongo kwaye unelunda ngesintu"
- Translation: "I hold with both hands, big man of Ntu (I thank you very much, big man of Ntu). When I move you (emotionally), I become quite excited because I know that you are not a small boy and you are very proud of African traditions."
Example of Urban Xhosa:
- "Ndiabulela mntakwethu. Xa ndichukumisa wena ndiya vuya kakhulu kuba kaloku ndiyayazi uba awusingomntu uweak kwaye uyazingca ngesintu"
- Translation: "I thank you very much, my brother . I am pleased that I have touched you (caused you to become emotional) because I know that you are not a weak person and you are proud of our customs."

Dialects of the same language differ in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
They are mutually intelligible (speakers can understand each other, e.g., Gcaleka and Ngqika dialects).
Dialects lack the status and power of languages because they are not standardized or used for official purposes (Stroud, 2014: 303) or (Stroud, 2019:311).

Examples of language mixing:
1. "Ek sê bafobethu! . . . molweni ni alright?"
  - Ek sê = Afrikaans for ‘I say’
  - alright = English
2. "The thing qubula’ed out of the bush and landed oorkant over there"
  - qubula = isiXhosa word for ‘sprang’ or ‘leapt’
  - oorkant = Afrikaans for ‘the other side’
  - Translation: "The buck leapt out of the bush and landed on the other side over there"
This example is from a Standard English White farmer in Eastern Cape to other White farmers.
- His motivation to speak/mix like this is to make his speech more expressive.
The other example is from isiXhosa-speaking pupil from Wesbank High School, Cape Town (Dyers, 2014).

Languages are on a continuum:
- Languages, though distinct, are not fixed or rigid.
- We mix resources from different varieties in one utterance.
- With the movement of people and interactions, languages mix.
- Multilingualism is the norm, with constant language mixing.

Textbook reference: Chapter 11 (pages 294-311 in the First Edition and 302-319 in the Second Edition).