APES Midterm

Primary productivity

rate at which organic matter is created by producers in an ecosystem

Phytoplankton

Microscopic, free-floating, autotrophic organisms that function as producers in aquatic ecosystems

GPP (gross primary productivity)

The total amount of solar energy that producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time

NPP

(Net Primary Productivity): the energy captured by producers in an ecosystem minus the energy producers respire

Trophic levels

The hierarchical levels of the food chain through which energy flows from primary producers to primary consumers, secondary consumers and so on.

Conservation of matter

the principle stating that matter is not created or destroyed during a chemical reaction

Omnivore

A consumer that eats both plants and animals

Carnivore

A consumer that eats only animals.

Herbivore

A consumer that eats only plants.

First law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

second law of thermodynamics

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat)

Energy pyramid

Shows the amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to another in a food web

10% rule

Only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.

Food chain

A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

Food web

a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.

producers (autotrophs)

Organisms that make their own food

Ecological pyramids

illustration of the relative amounts of energy or matter contained within each trophic level in a given food chain or food web

Primary consumers

animals that feed on producers; ex. herbivores

secondary consumers

carnivores that eat herbivores

tertiary consumers

carnivores that eat secondary consumers

heterotrophs

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

Reservoir

A large store of (water, carbon)

Organic

of, relating to, or derived from living matter, contains carbon

Inorganic

Not formed from living things or the remains of living things

Carbon cycle

The organic circulation of carbon from the atmosphere into organisms and back again

Carbon

C 6

Carbon sinks

places such as forests, ocean sediments, and soil, where accumulated carbon does not readily reenter the carbon cycle

Photosynthesis

Plants use the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen

Phytoplankton

Microscopic, free-floating, autotrophic organisms that function as producers in aquatic ecosystems

Cyanobacteria

Bacteria that can carry out photosynthesis

Cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen, releases CO2

Decomposition

A chemical reaction that breaks down compounds into simpler products.

Decomposer

An organism that breaks down wastes and dead organisms

Leaf litter

decomposing but recognizable leaves and other debris forming a layer on top of the soil, especially in forests

Detritivore

organism that feeds on plant and animal remains and other dead matter

Nitrogen

N 7

Nitrogen cycle

The transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere

Nitrification

Conversion of ammonia (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2-) and then into nitrite (NO3-)

Nitrogen fixation

process of converting nitrogen gas (N2) in the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb and use

Ammonification

fungal and bacterial decomposers use nitrogen-containing wastes and dead bodies as a food source and excrete ammonium (NH4+)

Denitrification

process by which bacteria convert nitrates (NO3-) into nitrogen gas (N2)

Impervious surfaces

surfaces that don't absorb water ex. roads, sidewalks, houses / buildings

Leaching

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

Assimilation

The process by which producers incorporate elements into their tissues

Phosphorous

P 15

Phosphorous cycle

The movement of phosphorous atoms from rocks through the biosphere and hydrosphere and back to rocks.

Phosphorus sinks

- Rocks and minerals
- Long-lived vegetation
- Dissolved PO4 ions, absorbed PO4 into particles, single-celled organisms

Hydrologic cycle

The cycle through which water in the hydrosphere moves; includes such processes as evaporation, precipitation, and surface and groundwater runoff

Hydrology

the study of water and its effects on and in the earth and in the atmosphere

Hydrosphere

All the water at and near the surface of the earth, 97% of which is in oceans

Groundwater

water held underground in the soil or in pores and crevices in rock.

Condensation

The change of state from a gas to a liquid (forms clouds)

Precipitation

Any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface.

Runoff

water that flows over the ground surface rather than soaking into the ground

Evaporation

The change of a substance from a liquid to a gas

Infiltration

the process by which water on the surface enters the soil

Transpiration

Evaporation of water from the leaves of a plant

Percolation

The downward movement of water through soil and rock due to gravity.

Sublimation

A change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming liquid

Symbiosis

A relationship in which two different organisms live in close association with each other

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Mutualism

A relationship between two species in which both species benefit

Parasitism

A relationship between two organisms of different species where one benefits and the other is harmed

Interspecific competition

competition between members of different species

Competition

A common demand by two or more organisms upon a limited supply of a resource; for example, food, water, light, space, mates, nesting sites. It may be intraspecific or interspecific.

Resource partitioning

The division of environmental resources by coexisting species such that the niche of each species differs by one or more significant factors from the niches of all coexisting species

Limiting factors

Conditions in the environment that put limits on where an organism can live

Ecological niches

the role an organism plays in its environment

Fundamental niche

The niche species could potentially occupy.

Realized niche

The niche species actually occupies.

Coevolution

Process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other

Competitive exclusion

Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species.

population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

community

All the different populations that live together in an area

biome

A group of ecosystems that share similar climates and typical organisms

Terrestrial

relating to the land

Weather

The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place.

Climate

The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time

Taiga (boreal forest, northern coniferous forest)

biome with long cold winters and a few months of warm weather; dominated by coniferous evergreens; also called boreal forest

Tundra

a vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.

Temperate

mild, moderate

Temperate rainforest

The cool, dense, rainy forests of the northern Pacific coast; enshrouded in fog much of the time; dominated by large conifers

Tropical

warm, moist climate zone near the equator

Tropic of Capricorn

a line of latitude about 23 degrees South of the equator

Tropical rainforests

Near the equator. Warm with lots of precipitation. Little seasonal temperature variation. Most diverse biome.

Shrubland (chaparral)

Found along the California coast and the coast of the Mediterranean sea. Characterized by hot summers and mild, rainy winters. Dominated by fire-tolerant shrubs.

Temperate grasslands

dominated by grasses, trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less than in savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot summers and cold winters. Occur in South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and the plains and prairies of central North America.

Savanna

a grassy plain in tropical and subtropical regions, with few trees.

Desert

An extremely dry (arid) area with little water and few plants

Latitude

distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees

Altitude

Elevation (height) above sea level

Longitude

Distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees

Permafrost

permanently frozen layer of soil beneath the surface of the ground

Climatograms

Chart that is used to better understand climate by looking at the average temperature and precipitation

Biosphere

part of Earth in which life exists including land, water, and air or atmosphere

Aquatic

relating to water

Biotic

Describes living factors in the environment.

Abiotic

Describes non-living factors in the environment

streams

a small, narrow river.

rivers

a large natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another such stream.

ponds

Bodies of fresh water (shallow, allows sunlight to go all the way through the water and makes plants grow)

lakes

A body of water that is surrounded by land it can be fresh water or salt water.

Water column

The vertical column of seawater that extends from the surface to the bottom

benthic zone

bottom of an aquatic ecosystem; consists of sand and sediment and supports its own community of organisms

pelagic zone

open water above the ocean floor

Benthos

organisms that live attached to or near the bottom of lakes, streams, or oceans

oceans

the largest of all the ecosystems. The ocean regions are separated into separate zones: intertidal, pelagic, abyssal, and benthic. All four zones have a great diversity of species.

coral reefs

Prominent oceanic features composed of hard, limy skeletons produced by coral animals; usually formed along edges of shallow, submerged ocean banks or along shelves in warm, shallow, tropical seas

marshlands

Consisting of low lying wetlands ; areas that typically stay flooded/waterlogged. Swamp or bog.

estuaries

the tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.

Algae

a very simple plant without stems or leaves that grows in or near water.

Salinity

A measure of the amount of dissolved salts in a given amount of liquid

swamps

shallow water in forested areas, dominated by trees

Mangrove forests

woody, specialized types of trees of the tropics that can live on the edge, where rainforests meet oceans

Riparian

Having to do with the banks of a body of water

Biodiversity

Variety of life forms present in a particular ecosystem,

Habitat

the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism.

Specialist species

Species with a narrow ecological niche. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions, or use only one type or a few types of food.

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Species richness

the number of different species in a community

Species evenness

the relative proportion of different species in a given area

Biodiversity hotspot

is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans

Ecosystem services

The process by which natural environments provide life-supporting resources

Provisioning

products obtained from ecosystems

Regulating

benefits obtained from the regulating of ecosystems (flood prevention, water filtration, erosion control)

Cultural

Non-material benefits obtained from ecosystems, intrinsic value

Supporting

ecosystem services necessary for all other ecosystem services

Anthropogenic

Human-induced changes on the natural environment

Theory of Island Biogeography

demonstrates the dual importance of habitat size and distance in determining species richness

Generalist species

Species with a broad ecological niche. They can live in many different places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Examples are flies, cockroaches, mice, rats, and human beings. Compare specialist species.

Invasive species

A species, often introduced by humans, that takes hold outside its native range.

Native species

Species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem

Zebra mussels

are an invasive exotic species that clogs water intake pipes at factories, power plants, and wastewater treatment facilities

Ecological tolerance

the range of conditions in which a species can survive

Salinity

The total amount of dissolved salts in a water sample.

Flow rate

The volume of fluid that moves through a system in a given period of time.

Range of tolerance

Range of chemical and physical conditions that must be maintained for populations of a particular species to stay alive and grow, develop, and function normally

Climate

The average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time

Migration

Movement from one habitat to another

adaptation

inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival

Genetic diversity

the variety of genes within a given species

Evolution

Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

Natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Speciation

Formation of new species

Bottleneck effect

a reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size

Succession

A series of predictable and orderly changes within an ecosystem over time.

Keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem

Primary succession

An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic community previously existed (bare rock)

Secondary succession

Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil

Opportunistic species

Species that specialize in invading newly vacated habitats

Pioneer species

First species to populate an area during primary succession

Climax Community

stable, mature ecological community with little change in the composition of species

Threatened species

A species that could become endangered in the near future

Endangered species

A species in danger of becoming extinct in the near future

Extinct/extinction

when a species has no members that are still alive; the population of that species no longer exists

Selective pressures

environmental resistance factors affect which individuals survive and reproduce

Fitness

Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

Poaching

Illegal hunting of protected animals

Background extinction

normal extinction of various species as a result of changes in local environmental conditions

Mass extinction

event in which many types of living things become extinct at the same time

Endangered Species Act

(1973) identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

A 1973 treaty formed to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals

Fauna

all the animal life in a particular region

Flora

plants of a region

Overexploitation

Practice of harvesting or hunting to such a degree that remaining individuals may not be able to replenish the population

Selective breeding

the process of selecting organisms with desired traits to be parents of the next generation

HIPPCO

Habitat destruction, Invasive Species, Population growth, Pollution, Climate Change, Overexploitations

Habitat fragmentation

Splitting of ecosystems into small fragments

Edge effects

different environmental conditions that occur along the boundaries of an ecosystem

Mitigate

to make less severe

Habitat corridors

protected strips of land that allow the migration of organisms from one wilderness area to another

Wildlife refuge

an area of land set aside to protect animals and other living things

K-selected species

Species that produce a few, often fairly large offspring but invest a great deal of time and energy to ensure that most of those offspring reach reproductive age.

r-selected species

Species that reproduce early in their life span and produce large numbers of usually small and short-lived offspring in a short period, low paternal care

Competition

the struggle between organisms to survive in a habitat with limited resources

Biotic potential

Maximum rate at which the population of a given species can increase when there are no limits on its rate of growth.

Invasive species

plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are not native

Survivorship curves

a graph that represents the distinct patterns of species survival as a function of age

Type I survivorship curve

A survivorship curve in which newborns, juveniles, and young adults all have high survival rates and death rates do not begin to increase greatly until old age.

Type II survivorship curve

Experience roughly a constant mortality rate regardless of age. Prey animals such as birds can follow this pattern of survival.

Type III survivorship

Experience the greatest mortality early on in life, with relatively low rates of death for those surviving. Usually r-selected.

J-shaped curve (exponential growth)

Growth where there is unlimited resources and no competition

S-shaped curve (logistic growth)

Where the community has reached its carrying capacity

Carrying capacity (K)

Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Overshoot

when a population becomes larger than the environment's carrying capacity

Dieback

Sharp reduction in the population of a species when its numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat.

Depletion

reduction in the number or quantity of something

Famine

an extreme shortage of food

Population growth

An increase in population over a period of time.

Finite

limited

Fecundity

fertility

Desalinization

A process of removing salt from ocean water

Pandemic

an epidemic that is geographically widespread

Epidemic

A widespread outbreak of an infectious disease.

Age structure diagrams

broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth

Population growth rates

-A country's is determined by its natural increase expressed as a percentage
-For example, a country's natural increase with a CBR of 22 and a CDR of 12 is 10 per 1,000, which translates to a rate of 1 percent

Total fertility rate (TFR)

The average number of children born to a woman during her childbearing years.

Fertility

the incidence of childbearing in a country's population

replacement fertility rate

the total fertility rate needed for a population to replace itself = 2.1

Mortality

death rate

Life expectancy

A figure indicating how long, on average, a person may be expected to live

Per capita

per person

Infant mortality rates

The percentage of children who die before their first birthday within a particular area or country.

Death rates

population density

Number of individuals per unit area

Malthusian theory

focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace growth of the food supply and lead to social degradation and disorder

Density-independent factors

limiting factor that affects all populations in similar ways, regardless of population size eg. flood, fire, other natural disasters

Density-dependent factors

factor that limits a population more as population density increases eg. food, shelters, water, spread of disease

Rule of 70

Doubling time (in years) = 70/(percentage growth rate).

Doubling time

The number of years needed to double a population

Crude birth rate

The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people

Crude death rate

The number of deaths per year per 1,000 people.

Overpopulation

The number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living.

Standard of living

Quality of life based on ownership of necessities and luxuries that make life easier.

Import vs. Export

Goods that are purchased are imported (into a country). Goods that are exported are sold for profit (sent out of the country).

Gross domestic product (GDP)

A measurement of the total goods and services produced within a country.

Population momentum

continued population growth that does not slow in response to growth reduction measures

Demographic transition

change in a population from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates

4-stage demographic transition model (DTM)

Infant mortality rates

Developed countries

countries with strong economies and a high quality of life

Developing countries

countries with less productive economies and a lower quality of life

Demography

The scientific study of population characteristics.

post-industrial stage

(demographic transition) low birth & death rates

pre-industrial stage

birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

Industrial stage

(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows

Transitional stage

(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast

Birth control

Any method used to reduce births, including celibacy, delayed marriage, contraception; devices or medication that prevent implantation of fertilized zygotes, and induced abortions

Immigration

Movement of individuals into a population

Emigration

movement of individuals out of a population

Rock cycle

the series of processes that change one type of rock into another type of rock

Geological

concerned with geology, the science that deals with the physical nature of the earth

Convergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move toward each other.

Divergent boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move away from each other.

Transform boundary

A plate boundary where two plates move past each other in opposite directions

Plate tectonic theory

the theory that the lithosphere is broken up into large plates that move and then rejoin; considered the unifying theory of geology

Tectonic plates

a block of lithosphere that consists of the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle

Plate boundaries

the edges of tectonic plates.

Seafloor spreading

The process that creates new sea floor as plates move away from each other at the mid-ocean ridges

Volcanoes

openings in Earth's crust from which molten rock, dust, ash, and hot gases flow or erupt

Convergent Oceanic-Continental

Features: volcanic arcs, volcanoes, trench
Examples: , Andes Mountains

Earthquakes

sudden movements of Earth's crust followed by a series of shocks

Convergent Continent-Continent

A landform created by this boundary is mountain ranges.

Hot spots

places where molten material from the mantle reaches the lithosphere

Faults

Breaks in Earth's crust where rocks have slipped past each other.

Asthenosphere

The soft layer of the mantle on which the tectonic plates move

Lithosphere

A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust.

Crust

The thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle

Convection currents

a current in a fluid that results from convection.

Mantle

The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core.

Soil

The loose, weathered material on Earth's surface in which plants can grow.

Erosion

Processes by which rock, sand, and soil are broken down and carried away (i.e. weathering, glaciation)

Cover crops

Plants, such as rye, alfalfa, or clover, that can be planted immediately after harvest to hold and protect the soil.

Vegetated buffers

areas of natural or established vegetation maintained to protect the water quality of neighboring areas

Parent material

the rock material from which the inorganic components of a soil are derived

Soil horizons

distinct layers of soil

Weathering

The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface.

Organic material

Materials that were once part of living things

Soil Fertility

Soil's ability to hold nutrients and to supply nutrients to a plant

physical properties of soil

texture and porosity

biological properties of soil

Many organisms are found in the soil including fungi, bacteria, protozoans, rodents and earthworms.

Fertilizer

a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase its fertility

Clay

the finest soil, made up of particles that are less than 0.002 mm in diameter.

Sand

the coarsest soil, with particles 0.05,2.0 mm in diameter.

Silt

fine particles of fertile soil

Water holding capacity

how well soil can retain water (sand is low, clay is high)

Loam

Rich, fertile soil that is made up of about equal parts of clay, sand, and silt.

Atmosphere

A mixture of gases that surrounds a planet or moon.

Leaching

removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

Troposphere

0-17 km above Earth's surface, site of weather, organisms, contains most atmospheric water vapor. (temperature decreases with increasing altitude, pressure decreases)

Stratosphere

2nd layer of atmosphere; extends from 10 to 30 miles up; location of ozone layer; absorbs 95% of Ultraviolet radiation; temperature increases with altitude increase.

Mesosphere

The layer of Earth's atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere

Thermosphere

The uppermost layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature increases as altitude increases

Exosphere

The outer layer of the thermosphere, extending outward into space.

ozone layer

Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.

Global wind patterns

air movements that are caused by pressure belts convection cells and earth's rotation. Warm air rises from the equator to the poles then cools and sinks back to the equator

Trade winds

prevailing winds that blow from east to west from 30 degrees latitude to the equator in both hemispheres

Wind

the movement of air caused by differences in air pressure

Solar radiation

energy from the sun

Equator

0 degrees latitude

Coriolis effect

Causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's rotation

Atmospheric circulation

redistributes heat over earth's surface by exchanging warm tropical air with cold polar air.

insolation

incoming solar radiation

Seasons

Earth has seasons because because its axis is tilted as it moves around the sun.

Latitude

Distance north or south of the equator

Axis

An imaginary line that passes through Earth's center and the North and South poles, about which Earth rotates

Infrared radiation

a form of energy with wavelengths that are longer than visible light

Climate

Overall weather in an area over a long period of time

Microclimates

Local climatic conditions that differ from the general climate of a region

weather

The condition of Earth's atmosphere at a particular time and place.

Rain shadow

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side

Elevation

height above sea level

Precipitation

Any form of water that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface.

leeward

The side of a mountain range that faces away from the oncoming wind.

Wayward

The side of a mountain range that faces towards the oncoming wind.

El Nino (ENSO)

A reversal of wind and water currents in the South Pacific

La Nina

"Normal" year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America.

Upwelling

The movement of deep, cold, and nutrient-rich water to the surface

convergent oceanic-oceanic

2 oceanic plates push together, older plate sub ducts and forms a chain of volcanic islands, ex. Aleutian Islands and Japanese Islands

divergent oceanic-oceanic

two ocean plates move apart. The landforms formed by this boundary are mid-ocean rigdes.
Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Iceland volcano

divergent continental-continental

two continental plates move apart, forms rift valley