Russia

The Songhai Empire succeeded the Mali Empire.
- Important to recognize continuities and changes between the two empires under their leadership.

Change in women's roles notable in empires adopting Islam and Sharia Law.
- Public life for women, especially in the Songhai Empire, grew limited.
- However, Sharia Law offered increased legal rights for women, aiming to protect them more than many contemporary legal systems.

The Russian government from 1325 to 1591 was known as a Tsardom, centralized under a main ruler called the Czar.
- Transition towards a more centralized autocratic power during this period.
Notable leaders in the Tsardom of Russia:
- Ivan the Terrible:
- Grand Prince of Muscovy since 1533.
- Initiatives included:
  - New law code.
  - Military revamp.
  - Reorganization of local government.
  - Policy creation known as "Oprichnina", designating territories under his direct control.
- Peter the Great:
- Became Czar in 1682, brother of Sofia.
- Significant contributions:
  - Built a powerful navy.
  - Moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg.
  - Implemented a merit-based autocracy to maintain centralized power.
- Catherine the Great:
- Came to power through a coup against her husband, Peter III.
- Empowered nobles to administer the empire, sustaining centralized authority.

Major religion: Russian Eastern Orthodox Christianity, intertwined with the state.
- Introduced by Greek missionaries and settlers; had strong connections to government.
- Became the state religion in the 10th century.
Historical conflict:
- The separation of Catholic and Orthodox churches led to internal conflicts.
- Reformation attempts met opposition from traditionalist groups known as "Old Believers."
- Resulted in persecution of Old Believers and ongoing tensions.
Expansion of Orthodox Christianity into Muslim territories as Russia grew.
Church's influence on serfs, promoting the idea of service to lords as virtuous.

Expansion into Siberia enabled control over forest resources, enhancing trade capabilities.
The empire engaged in trade with various European powers, obtaining resources:
- Notable exports included pig iron and potash, contributing to military successes.
Methods of taxation included:
- Various tributes imposed, notably conscription for military service.
- The 1698 beer tax: fees imposed on men wishing to maintain facial hair, illustrating Westernization efforts.

Women's roles shaped by a system tying them to land owned by nobles; they needed permission to leave.
Contribution to agriculture and household production but faced limited legal rights.
The nobility controlled land and peasants, reinforcing a patriarchal society.
- The "voivodes" (nobles) and church promoted gender norms for stability.
Overall lack of meaningful legal or social changes for women up to 1750.

Military leases predominantly consisted of service nobility and Cossack warriors.
System of land grants for military service cemented loyalty to the Tsar.
- Evolved into a hereditary service system, binding noble families to military obligations.
The professional army was crucial in:
- Expanding territory into Siberia and beyond.
- Suppressing internal revolts, including peasant uprisings.

Influences on Muscovite art (14th - 17th centuries):
- Cultural inspirations drawn from Byzantine and Mongol Empires.
Cultural recovery sparked by the Mongol Tatar invasion, following limited activity in the Kievan period.
Rise in literary culture during the Muscovite period; significant texts included religious writings and letters of authority.
- Example: Ivan IV's threatening letters to General Kurbski, showcasing power dynamics.
Architectural influence:
- St. Basil's Cathedral embodies this cross-cultural fusion, created to commemorate the capture of Kazan, featuring representations of powerful leaders and religious figures.
Predominance of Christian themes in artworks due to the Christian majority among artists.

The Tsardom began as a small state based around Moscow.
- Early expansion involved conflicts with the Principality of Novgorod, leading to territorial acquisitions.
- Under Grand Duke Ivan III, more territories were seized, including Muslim Khanates.
Significant events included a failed Baltic invasion leading to the civil strife known as the "Time of Troubles."
- Post-securing borders by taking Sweden, campaigns expanded into Asia.
Missionary efforts in Central Asia and Siberia aimed at fostering trade relations for economic benefit.

The government was structured as a centralized autocracy, particularly during the Tsardom from 1325 to 1591, with a Czar as the main ruler.
Increased centralization of power through a system of nobility and local governance, leading to a solid bureaucratic framework.

Composed mainly of noble families who held significant power and land.
Managed administrative roles in the local and provincial governments, enforcing the Czar's policies and ensuring loyalty.
Bureaucrats were instrumental in implementing reforms and maintaining order within the empire.

Major religion: Russian Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which became intertwined with the state.
The church was closely linked to the government since its introduction by Greek missionaries.
Internal conflicts arose from the separation of Catholic and Orthodox churches, with persecution of traditionalist groups known as "Old Believers."

Revenue gained through various taxes including tributes imposed on conquered peoples.
The government utilized conscription for military service as a form of taxation.
Implemented the 1698 beer tax, showcasing Westernization efforts and additional revenue generation strategies.

Women's roles were largely defined by a patriarchal society, with limited legal rights and dependency on land owned by nobles.
Contributed significantly to agriculture and household production but needed permission to leave their designated land.
The gender norms were promoted by the nobility and church, emphasizing stability within society.

Military structure relied on service nobility and Cossack warriors, with loyalty secured through land grants for military service.
Professional army developed over time, crucial for expanding territories and suppressing internal revolts.

Influences from Byzantine and Mongol empires shaped Muscovite art (14th - 17th centuries).
Architectural highlights include St. Basil's Cathedral, representing a fusion of cultural influences dedicated to the capture of Kazan.
Literature flourished during this period, with significant religious texts and correspondence demonstrating power dynamics.

The state maintained intricate relations through territorial conquests and missionary efforts aimed at fostering economic benefits in newly acquired lands.
Diplomatically engaged with surrounding territories, adapting to changing political landscapes and integrating diverse cultures in conquered regions.