Nationalism and the Unification of European Nation-States

The Congress of Vienna ( $1815$ ): Following the Napoleonic Wars, diplomats and leaders convened to establish new European state boundaries. These boundaries failed to address the burgeoning desire for national self-determination among various groups.
- Inadequacies of the $1815$ Settlements:
  - German Speakers: Central Europe's German-speaking populations were fragmented across numerous different governments rather than a single unified state.
  - The Austrian Empire: This German-speaking empire exercised rule over a diverse array of Slavic peoples, creating ethnic and national tension.
  - Poland: As of $1815$ , there was no independent Polish state.
  - The Italian Peninsula: Italy remained divided into several distinct states. Many Italians lived under the direct rule of foreign powers, specifically the Austrian and French Empires.
  - Belgium and Holland: In an effort to create a buffer state, the territory that would become Belgium was united with Holland and placed under the authority of the Dutch king.

Awakening of National Consciousness: In the Balkan peninsula, national awakening posed a direct threat to the unity of the Ottoman Empire, which had been in a state of decline since the late $17^{th}$ century.
Religious Dimensions: The Greek revolution was characterized by a distinct religious motif. The Greeks, who were predominately Orthodox Christians, were in open revolt against the Muslim-led Ottoman Empire.
Philhellenism: This term describes the intense enthusiasm and support of Western European intellectuals for the Greek cause.
- Classical Roots: For Western Europeans, "Greece" represented the cradle of the classical world, associated with figures such as Homer, Sophocles, Plato, and Aristotle.
- Cultural Figures: Lord Byron is a notable figure associated with Philhellenism, depicted in T. Vryzakis's painting "Lord Byron à Missolonghi."
- Visual Representation: The painter Theodoros Vryzakis produced significant works capturing the struggle against the Ottomans, emphasizing the religious and national fervor of the Greeks.

"La République universelle démocratique et sociale": A famous image by Frédéric Sorrieu illustrating the "spirit of $1848$ ."
The Springtime of Nations: This period was marked by widespread liberal nationalist sentiment aimed at toppling the conservative international relations system established in $1815$ .
Nationalism as a "Political Religion": The liberal nationalism of this era utilized religious imagery to galvanize the public. In Sorrieu's work, "Fraternity" is blazoned in the sky over the head of Christ, while the flags of united free nations—most notably German and Italian—symbolize the forward march of the people.

Revolutionary Conflict ( $1830$ ): Streets battles occurred in Brussels in $1830$ between revolutionaries and Dutch troops, specifically at the gates of the Parc Royale, as depicted by Constantinus Fidelio Coene ( $1779$ – $1841$ ).
Léopold I and the Constitutional Kingdom:
- Léopold I was a prince from the German state of Saxe-Coburg.
- He accepted the position of the first constitutional King of the Belgians.
- He took his official oath of office in $1831$ , an event captured in a painting by Egidius Karel Gustaaf Wappers ( $1803$ - $1874$ ).

The March Days ( $1848$ ): Revolutionary activities erupted in Berlin as part of the wider $1848$ European revolts.
The National Assembly at Paulskirche ( $1848$ ): A meeting held in the Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) sought to create a unified German state.
Symbology of the National Flag:
- Origins: The Red-Black-Gold flag was adopted from the wars of liberation against Napoleon.
- The Lützow Freikorps: These were military units composed of student recruits from all over Germany. To ensure uniformity, their diverse outfits were dyed black, featuring gold buttons and red insignia.
- Poetic Interpretation: The colors were interpreted as: "from the blackness of slavery, through the red of bloody battle, to the golden light of freedom."
- Historical Continuity: These colors appeared on the insignia of the Holy Roman Empire and remain the colors of the modern German flag.

Limitations of the German Confederation ( $1815$ ): The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna (marked by a red line on contemporary maps) prevented a true "German Nation."
- Foreign Rulers: The King of Denmark governed Holstein and Lauenburg, while the King of the Netherlands governed Luxembourg.
- Extraterritorial Rule: German rulers often governed non-German lands. For instance, the Emperor of Austria ruled over Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, and parts of Italy.
- Ethnic Diversity: Member states included significant non-German populations, such as the Slovaks and Moravians in Bohemia.
- The Austrian Dilemma: For Austria to join a unified German nation, she would have had to relinquish rule over Magyars, Croats, and other Slavic peoples.

Bismarck’s Expansion: Chancellor Otto von Bismarck successfully brought a specific version of Germany into existence:
- Exclusion of Austria: German-speaking Austria was excluded from the new state, remaining a separate multinational empire.
- The German Reich: A federal nation-state was formed, uniting the remaining German states.
- Governance: The Reich was a constitutional monarchy under the Hohenzollern dynasty, which previously ruled Prussia.
- Capital: Berlin, the former Prussian capital, became the capital of the newly united German state.
Commemorative Art: Anton von Werner was commissioned by the Prussian royal family to paint the "Declaration of the German Empire at Versailles" for Bismarck’s $70^{th}$ birthday.
- Anachronism Note: Though the event occurred in $1871$ , the subjects were portrayed as the age they were in $1885$ when the painting was commissioned.

Territorial Progression:
- Base State: The process began with the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont) before $1859$ .
- $1859$ : Addition of Lombardy to the North Italian Kingdom.
- $1860$ : Incorporation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (including Naples and Sicily) and the annexation of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena. Savoy and Nice were transferred to France during this year.
- $1866$ : Venetia was added to the Kingdom of Italy.
- $1870$ : The Papal States, including Rome, were acquired, completing the unification.
Geographic Scope: The unification spanned from the Alps in the north to Sicily in the south, covering roughly $200$ miles ( $200$ kilometers) in various directions under a Chamberlin Trimetric projection.