Developments in the Americas – AP World History Notes

Essential Question

• What states developed in the Americas, and how did they change over time?

The Mississippian Culture

• Emergence: The first large-scale civilization in North America appeared in the 700 ext{s}–800 ext{s} CE in the eastern United States, in the Mississippi River Valley (hence the name Mississippian).
• Monumental remains: Built enormous earthen mounds (some as tall as 100 ext{ ft} and covering an area as large as 12 ext{ football fields}).
• Cahokia: The largest of these mound centers, located in southern Illinois.
• Government and Society:
  • Rigid social hierarchy with a central ruler called the Great Sun at the top of each large town.
  • Social strata: Great Sun → priests and nobles → farmers, hunters, merchants, artisans → slaves (often war captives).
  • Matrilineal society: Social standing passed through the woman’s line; for example, when the Great Sun died, the successor was the sister’s son, not his own son.
  • Gender roles: Women typically farmed; men hunted.
• Decline of Mississippian civilization:
  • Abandonment of Cahokia around 1450; by 1600, other large Mississippian cities were abandoned as well.
  • Explanations for decline (two leading theories):
  • Flooding or other weather extremes causing crop failures and the collapse of the agricultural base.
  • Diseases introduced by Europeans dramatically reducing the population.

Chaco and Mesa Verde (Southwestern United States)

• Geographic setting: Emerged soon after Mississippian rise, in the arid Southwest.
• Adaptations to climate: Built water collection, transport, and storage systems; scarce wood led to innovative architecture.
• The Chacoans: Built large stone-and-clay structures with hundreds of rooms in the center of their communities.
• Mesa Verde residents: Constructed multi-story cliff dwellings using sandstone bricks.
• Decline: Both cultures declined in the late 13 ext{th} century as the climate became drier.

The Maya City-States

• Time and place: Height between 250 ext{ CE} and 900 ext{ CE} in the southern part of Mexico and across much of present-day Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala; about 40 major cities, each with 5{,}000–50{,}000 people; region population may have reached 2{,}000{,}000 at peak.
• Government: City-states ruled by a king, with each city and its surrounding territory forming an independent political unit.
  • Most rulers were men; when no male heir was available, or the heir was too young, a woman could rule.
  • City-states frequently fought; wars aimed to gain tribute and captives rather than to control territory outright; city-states could be dominant in a region without a single central authority.
  • The king claimed divinity, and when he died, he was believed to become an ancestor-god; the king directed the elite scribes and priests who managed state affairs.
  • Taxation and labor: Common people paid taxes in crops and provided labor to the government; there were no standing armies; military service was a civic obligation.
• Economy and administration:
  • Local rulers often remained in power in return for supplying tribute and labor; a city-state might be the strongest in a region and exercise dominance without a centralized empire.
• Religion, science, and technology:
  • Mayans achieved notable mathematical and astronomical advancements; they developed a writing system and incorporated the concept of zero into their numerals.
  • Religion was deeply tied to astronomy; priests used celestial observations to time ceremonies and determine the timing of warfare.
  • Observatories were built atop pyramids, e.g., at Chichen Itza, enabling highly accurate calendars that surpassed European calendars of the time.
  • Deities focused on sun, rain, and corn; human sacrifices were practiced, especially in war captives, as offerings to the gods.
  • Mayans believed their kings descended from gods and that death could unite them with their ancestor-god.
  • Architecture and cultural notes: Mayan pyramids with stepped sides were noted to resemble Mesopotamian ziggurats; similar architectural forms can be found across a wide geographic area.
• Maya writing and calendrics:
  • Developed a complex writing system and a calendar that governed religious ceremonies and warfare schedules.
  • The calendar’s accuracy was a defining feature of Maya science and religion.
• Key cultural achievements:
  • Zero in mathematics; solar and lunar calendars; sophisticated writing; rubber production from latex.

The Aztecs (Mexica)

• Origins and rise:
  • Began as hunter-gatherers who migrated into central Mexico in the 1200s.
  • Founded the capital Tenochtitlán on an island in Lake Texcoco in 1325.
  • Within ~100 years they built a broad empire spanning from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean.
• Capital and infrastructure:
  • Tenochtitlán grew to nearly 200{,}000 inhabitants, becoming one of the world’s largest cities.
  • Water supply achieved through an extensive aqueduct network.
  • Central monuments included the Great Pyramid (a major temple complex) and other stone pyramids, temples, and palaces.
  • Chinampas: Floating gardens on Lake Texcoco expanded agricultural land and food production.
• Government, economy, and society:
  • Tribute system: Conquered peoples paid tribute, surrendered lands, and provided military service.
  • Tribute goods included staple items (food, cloth, firewood) and luxury items (feathers, beads, jewelry).
  • Local rulers could remain in power as tribute collectors; this enabled Aztec political dominance without direct administration of all lands.
  • Administrative structure: The empire was divided into provinces; an Aztec official was stationed in each capital to collect tribute.
  • Government type: Theocracy, with the emperor known as the Great Speaker at the top, serving as political ruler and divine representative of the gods.
  • Social hierarchy: Land-owning nobles formed much of the military leadership; scribes and healers; craftspeople and traders; a specialized merchant class called pochteca traded in luxury goods; peasants and soldiers; enslaved people.
• Religion and daily life:
  • The Aztecs possessed an intricate and evolving pantheon of hundreds of deities, with many deities having male and female aspects.
  • Worship involved numerous rituals and feast days, including human sacrifices and bloodletting—seen as repayment for gods’ sacrifices in creation and as a means to secure prayers to be answered.
  • The practice of human sacrifice likely had political as well as religious significance, signaling the empire’s power.
• Role of women:
  • Women played important roles in the tribute system; weaving cloth was a crucial contribution to the tribute economy; to pay cloth tribute, husbands sometimes took more than one wife.
  • Some women served as priestesses, midwives, healers, or merchants; a few noblewomen served as scribes for royal households.
• Decline:
  • By the late 15th century the Aztec Empire was in decline due to several factors: relatively low technology (e.g., few wheeled vehicles, no pack animals) made agriculture laborious and inefficient; the empire’s drive for expansion created resentment among conquered peoples; increasing resistance and unrest.
  • This growing dissatisfaction culminated in the Spanish arrival in 1519, setting the stage for conquest.

The Inca (Inca Empire)

• Origins and growth:
  • Beginning in 1438, under Pachacuti (meaning “transformer” or “shaker of the earth”), small tribes were united into a centralized empire.
  • By 1493, Huayna Capac ruled a vast territory extending from present-day Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south.
• Administration and governance:
  • The empire was divided into four provinces, each with its own governor and bureaucratic apparatus.
  • Conquered leaders who demonstrated loyalty were rewarded; unlike the Aztecs, conquered peoples did not pay tribute in agricultural or labor taxes but were organized via the mit’a system.
  • Mit’a: Mandatory public service (e.g., labor for agriculture and infrastructure); men typically ranged from about 15 to 50 years old for labor assignments.
• Religion and ideology:
  • The Inca called themselves the “people of the sun” (Inti was the central sun god); the ruler was viewed as Inti’s representative on earth.
  • The Temple of the Sun in Cuzco was the religious center; royal ancestor veneration was a central feature, with dead rulers mummified and continuing to rule in some capacity, keeping ownership of their servants and property.
  • Priests consulted before important actions; divination involved coca leaves and other omens (e.g., spider motion) to determine the gods’ will.
  • Concepts like animism (huaca): sacred beings could be natural features (e.g., rivers, mountains) or man-made objects (e.g., stones, bridges).
• Achievements and technology:
  • Quipu: A system of knotted strings used to record numerical information for accounting, administration, and messaging.
  • Agricultural terraces and waru waru (raised beds with water channels) to reduce erosion and store water for droughts.
  • Infrastructure: An extensive road system called Carpa Nan with roughly 25{,}000 miles of roads, enabling government, military, and administrative control; sophisticated bridge-building in mountainous terrain.
• Decline:
  • The Spanish arrival under Francisco Pizarro in 1532 coincided with a civil war of succession after Huayna Capac’s death, severely weakening the empire.
  • Core territory fell to the Spanish by 1533; outposts held on until 1572 in some regions; Machu Picchu remains a notable symbol of Inca civilization.

Continuities and Diversity

• Historiographical debates: How closely were Mesoamerican cultures connected? Some argue a shared inheritance from the Olmec civilization (e.g., the feathered serpent deity, Olmec pottery motifs, ritual sacrifices, pyramids, ball courts).
• Shared features across cultures: monumental architecture, ritual sacrifice, and religious systems; but also significant regional variations and independent developments in other cases.
• Comparative snapshot (Maya vs. Aztec vs. Inca):
  • Maya: City-states; writing system; calendar; zero; heavy emphasis on ritual and astronomy.
  • Aztec: Empire built on tribute; centralized a theocratic state; militarized expansion; chinampas and aqueducts; intense ritual life.
  • Inca: Large empire with bureaucratic governance; mit’a labor; impressive infrastructural networks; state-controlled projects; ancestor worship and the Temple of the Sun; urban planning and agriculture.

Key Terms by Theme

• CULTURE: North America
  • Mississippian
  • matrilineal society
  • mound-building
  • Cahokia
• CULTURE: Mayan
  • city-states
  • writing
  • Step pyramids
  • accurate calendar
• GOVERNMENT: Aztec
  • Mexica
  • theocracy
  • tribute system
  • provincial governance
  • Great Speaker (emperor)
• RELIGION: Aztec
  • human sacrifice
• GOVERNMENT: Inca
  • Pachacuti
  • Incan Empire
• mit'a system
• TECHNOLOGY and THOUGHT: Inca
  • Carpa Nan
  • quipu
  • waru waru
• RELIGION: Inca
  • Temple of the Sun
  • animism
  • huaca

Practice Questions (from the transcript)

• The Mississippian Culture
  1) What is the first large-scale civilization in North America? Answer: The Mississippian culture.
  2) Why did the Mississippian Culture build mounds? Answer: For monumental architecture, ceremonial/ritual purposes, and social display (noting Cahokia as the largest example).
  3) What type of society did the matrilineal system create? Answer: A society in which descent and social standing are traced through the mother’s line; leadership succession passed to a sister’s son rather than a son.
  4) What are the two theories as to why Mississippian civilization declined? Answer: (a) Flooding or weather extremes causing crop failures and collapse of the agricultural base; (b) European diseases devastating populations.
• Chaco and Mesa Verde
  5) How did climate affect homebuilding for the Chaco and Mesa Verde civilizations? Answer: Aridity and scarce wood led to innovations in water management and the use of stone, clay, and sandstone materials.
  6) Why did their civilizations decline in the late 13 ext{th} century? Answer: Climate became drier, contributing to declines in agriculture and settlement viability.
• The Maya City-States
  7) What modern-day countries make up the Mayan civilization? Answer: Regions within present-day Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras.
  8) What form of government did the Maya Civilization develop? Answer: City-states ruled by kings; no single centralized state.
  9) What were Mayan kings claiming to be and what would happen once he dies? Answer: Kings claimed descent from a god; upon death, the king would become one with his ancestor-god.
  10) How did the common people economically support the city-states? Answer: Through taxes in crops and labor for the government.
  11) How did the Mayan civilization develop its military? Answer: Wars were fought primarily for tribute and captives rather than for territorial conquest; city-states could be overthrown by rival elites.
  12) What major achievements were developed by the Mayans? Answer: The zero in mathematics, a complex writing system, and precise astronomical calendars; rubber production from latex.
  13) What are the most important deities of the Mayans? Answer: Deities associated with the sun, rain, and corn were central; offerings and ritual ceremonies were performed to these gods.
• The Aztecs
  14) What is the indigenous name of the Aztecs? Answer: Mexica.
  15) What is the capital of the Aztec empire and what is its site called today? Answer: Tenochtitlán, located on an island in Lake Texcoco; today it is the site of Mexico City.
  16) What was the purpose of aqueducts created by the Aztecs? Answer: To supply water to Tenochtitlán.
  17) Why was the benefit of floating gardens? Answer: Chinampas increased arable land and food production in the lake environment.
  18) Describe the tribute system under the Aztec empire. Answer: Conquered peoples paid tribute, surrendered lands, and provided military service; tribute included both basic and luxury goods; local rulers remained in power as collectors.
  19) How was the formation of the Aztec Empire similar to that of the Incas? Answer: Both built large, highly organized imperial systems with centralized control and significant state-led infrastructure; however, the mechanisms (tribute vs. mit’a, etc.) differed).
  20) What type of government did the Aztec have? Answer: Theocracy with the emperor as political and religious leader (the Great Speaker).
  21) Describe the social hierarchy under the Aztec. Answer: Emperor → land-owning nobles (military leadership) → scribes and healers → craftspeople and traders → pochteca (merchants) → peasants and soldiers → enslaved people.
  22) For what reason would an Aztec civilian be enslaved? Answer: For not paying debts or as punishment for crimes.
  23) Why did the Aztecs perform human sacrifices for their deities? Answer: To honor the gods and atone for sin, with added political symbolism of imperial power; the practice also served to display the empire’s strength.
  24) How was human sacrifice used as a political component for the Aztecs? Answer: It demonstrated imperial might and helped control conquered peoples through fear and ritual authority.
  25) What was the role of women in the Aztec empire? Answer: Women woven cloth for tribute; some served as priestesses, midwives, healers, or merchants; some noblewomen acted as scribes for royal households.
  26) Besides Spanish conquest, what else led to the downfall of the Aztec empire? Answer: Internal factors such as underdevelopment in technology and ongoing resistance from subjugated peoples contributed to the empire’s vulnerability.
• The Inca
  27) What areas of South America did the Inca empire cover? Answer: From present-day Ecuador in the north to Chile in the south.
  28) How did the Inca empire organize its territory and government? Answer: The empire was divided into four provinces, each with its own governor and bureaucracy; mit’a system organized labor rather than tribute; centralized administration.
  29) How were conquered people treated differently by the Incas in comparison to the Aztecs? Answer: Incas used the mit’a labor system with a focus on public works rather than direct tribute in goods and forced labor; Aztecs relied heavily on tribute and military conquest to extract resources.
  30) How did the mit'a system provide infrastructure to the Inca empire? Answer: It mobilized labor for public works (roads, bridges, terraces) and other state projects, enabling large-scale infrastructure and state capacity.
  31) Who is the most important Inca god and who does he represent? Answer: Inti, the Sun God, representing the sun and the divine favor behind the emperor.
  32) Where was the core of Inca religion located? Answer: The Temple of the Sun at Cuzco.
  33) What significant role did Inca priests play? Answer: They consulted the gods to determine will and planned sacrifices; they diagnosed illness, predicted outcomes of battles, solved crimes, and determined sacrifices.
  34) What is animism and what role did it play in the Inca religion? Answer: Animism is the belief that elements of the physical world possess supernatural powers; in the Inca belief system, huaca (sacred objects or sites) could be rivers, mountains, stones, or man-made features, central to ritual life.
  35) What are three major achievements by Inca religion and practice? Answer: (1) Temple of the Sun and royal ancestor veneration; (2) mummification of rulers who continued to rule posthumously; (3) divination practices using coca leaves and other signs.
  36) What caused the decline of the Inca empire? Answer: The arrival of Spanish conquerors led to civil war during the succession crisis after Huayna Capac’s death, illness and European diseases, and eventual conquest by 1533, with some outposts resisting until 1572.