Psychology's History and Approaches & Research Methods

Psychology’s History and Approaches

• Unit Overview
  • Module 1: Psychology’s History
  • Module 2: Psychology’s Big Issues and Approaches
  • Module 3: Careers in Psychology
  • Module 4: The Need for Psychological Science
  • Module 5: The Scientific Method and Description
  • Module 6: Correlation and Experimentation
  • Module 7: Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
  • Module 8: Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology

Psychology’s History

• Philosophical Foundations
  • Socrates & Plato: Mind is separate from body; knowledge is innate.
  • Aristotle: Knowledge grows from experiences stored in memory.
  • Descartes: Animal spirits in brain fluid; agreed with Plato and Socrates.
  • Bacon: Emphasized perceiving patterns in data.
  • Locke: Concept of tabula rasa (blank slate); emphasized experience as foundational for knowledge.
  • Empiricism: Knowledge originates in experience; science should rely on observation and experimentation.

Psychological Science is Born

• Wilhelm Wundt
  • Established the first psychology laboratory in Germany.
• G. Stanley Hall: Founded America's first psychology laboratory.
• Edward Titchener: Developed Structuralism; used introspection to analyze the human mind but found it unreliable.
• William James: Promoted Functionalism, influenced by Darwin; focused on mental and behavioral processes' functions.

Contributions by Women in Psychology

• Mary Calkins
  • First female president of the American Psychological Association (APA); Ph.D. denied by Harvard.
• Margaret Floy Washburn
  • First woman granted a psychology Ph.D.; authored The Animal Mind; second APA president; barred from experimental psychologists' group.

Development of Psychological Science

• Behaviorism
  • Focus on observable behavior; differentiation between objective science and mental processes.
  • B.F. Skinner: Known for work on conditioning.
  • John Watson: Considered the “Father” of behaviorism.
• Freudian Psychology
  • Emphasis on unconscious thought processes and emotional responses rooted in childhood experiences.
• Humanistic Psychology
  • Notable figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow; emphasized personal growth potential.
• Cognitive Neuroscience
  • Interdisciplinary study linking brain activity with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language).

Major Psychological Issues and Approaches

• Nature-Nurture Issue
  • Debate on relative contributions of genetics and environment to psychological traits and behaviors; interactionist perspective is adopted today.
• Natural Selection
  • Concept by Charles Darwin; explains survival based on reproductive and inherited advantages.

Levels of Analysis in Psychology

• Biopsychosocial Approach
  • Integrated perspective incorporating biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors to explain behavior.

Psychology's Main Perspectives

• Summary of major psychological perspectives
  

Basic Research

• Psychometrics: Measurement of abilities and traits.
• Developmental Psychology: Studies cognitive and social changes from infancy to adulthood.
• Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on perception, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Educational Psychology: Enhances teaching and learning processes.
• Personality Psychology: Studies individual characteristic patterns affecting behavior.
• Social Psychology: Examines social influences on thought and behavior.

Applied Research

• I/O Psychology: Optimizes workplace behavior.
• Human Factors Psychology: Focuses on interactions between people and machines.
• Counseling Psychology: Helps clients deal with life challenges.
• Clinical Psychology: Assesses and treats psychological disorders.
• Psychiatry: Medical branch addressing psychological disorders.
• Positive Psychology: Studies strengths and virtues enabling thriving.
• Community Psychology: Focus on social institutions and interactions affecting communities.

Careers in Psychology

• A psychology background aids in diverse career paths.
• American Psychological Association (APA): 54 divisions related to various psychological sectors.

Understanding Psychological Science

The Need for Psychological Science

• Highlighting the limitations of intuition and common sense in understanding human behavior:
  • Hindsight Bias: The inclination to see events as predictable after they occur.
  • Overconfidence: Being overly sure of one’s knowledge.
  • Perceiving Patterns: Identifying trends in random data.

The Scientific Method and Description

• Theory: Framework organizing observations and predicting outcomes.
• Hypothesis: A testable prediction derived from a theory.
• Operational Definition: Precise explanation of research measures allowing for replication.
• Replicability: Repeating studies to confirm findings.
• Research Methods:
  • Descriptive: Observational studies to describe behavior.
  • Correlational: Studies associating different variables.
  • Experimental: Manipulation of variables to explore effects.

Statistical Reasoning in Psychology

• Measures of Central Tendency:
  • Mode: Most frequently occurring score.
  • Mean: Average score.
  • Median: Midpoint score.
• Measures of Variation:
  • Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores.
  • Standard Deviation: Variation from the mean.
• Inferential Statistics: Help generalize findings from sample data to the larger population, focusing on sample reliability and significance.

Conclusion

• Understanding the comprehensive history, perspectives, and methodologies in psychology is crucial for grasping how psychological science operates and its relevance in addressing human behavior and mental processes.