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Proteins

Proteins are polymers made up of amino acid monomers.
Amino acids consist of:
- Amino group (NH₂)
- Carboxyl group (COOH)
They can exist in two forms: ionic and non-ionic.
- Ionic form exhibits electrical charge due to ionization of the amino/carboxyl groups.
- Non-ionic form has no charges on either side.
- Variations exist in the structural representation of amino acids in literature.

Amino acids are joined together through peptide bonds, which are covalent bonds formed by the removal of water during a dehydration synthesis reaction.
Resulting molecule from two amino acids is a peptide; multiple joined amino acids form a polypeptide.
Polypeptide vs. Protein:
- Polypeptide: A sequence of amino acids.
- Protein: A biological molecule formed when polypeptides fold into a functional three-dimensional structure.

The specific shape of a protein is crucial as it determines the protein's function.
Proper folding is essential; without the correct conformation, the protein will not function correctly.

Primary Structure:
- Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
- Similar to how letters form a word; changes alter the functionality of the protein.
Secondary Structure:
- Formed by hydrogen bonds, leading to coiling (alpha helix) or folding (beta sheet) within the polypeptide chain.
- Illustrated with examples: coils (alpha helix) and zigzag connections (beta sheet).
Tertiary Structure:
- The three-dimensional shape formed by the entire polypeptide chain folding and bending.
- Stabilized by various interactions including hydrogen and covalent bonds.
Quaternary Structure:
- Formed when multiple polypeptides come together to function as a protein.
- Example: Hemoglobin consists of four subunits, where the assembly of these units is necessary for function.

The protein's secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures can be disrupted by conditions such as heat or pH extremes, leading to denaturation.
Denatured proteins lose functionality, similarly to a sweater unraveled back to yarn.
Example: Heating an egg changes liquid egg whites to solid form due to protein denaturation.

Cooking denatures proteins; while some nutrients may change, it aids in digestion.
Raw proteins can also be consumed occasionally, provided they are clean.

Hair's shape is maintained by hydrogen and covalent bonds; styling manipulates these bonds temporarily.
Permanent hair changes alter covalent bonds but can damage hair over time.

Enzymes are special proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions, accelerating the reaction rate.
Example: Lactase enzyme breaks down the disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose.
Enzyme terminology:
- Substrate: The compound on which the enzyme acts (e.g., lactose).
- Products: Compounds produced from the enzymatic reaction.

The enzymatic process includes:
1. Substrate binds to the enzyme's active site.
2. The enzyme facilitates bond breakage, resulting in product release.
Enzymes can be reused for subsequent reactions, maintaining activity until deactivated.

Concentration: Increased enzyme amounts increase reaction speed until saturation is reached.
Temperature: Enzymes have optimum temperature ranges. High temperatures can denature enzymes.
pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH, with some enzymes functioning in acidic (e.g., pepsin) while others in neutral to basic environments (e.g., trypsin).

Activators enhance enzyme activity while inhibitors decrease it.
Pharmaceutical applications often target enzymes to develop drugs.
- Example: Ibuprofen and aspirin are inhibitors of cyclooxygenase enzymes, reducing pain responses.

Conditions like phenylketonuria (PKU) result from enzyme deficiencies affecting amino acid breakdown, which can lead to developmental issues without dietary modifications.

Two primary nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Both DNA and RNA consist of nucleotide monomers:
- Nucleotide parts: phosphate group, sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA), and nitrogenous base.
Key differences include:
- Sugar structure different (deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom compared to ribose).
- Different nitrogenous bases: DNA contains adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T); RNA has A, G, C, and uracil (U) instead of T.

DNA serves as a stable genetic archive, while RNA acts as a temporary working copy in the gene expression process:
- Transcription: The process of synthesizing RNA from DNA template.
- Translation: The process where RNA's information is used to synthesize proteins.

Science investigates natural phenomena through observations and experimentation.
Scientific method steps:
1. Make Observations: Noticing phenomena or patterns.
2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Develop a testable statement explaining the observations.
3. Devise a Testable Prediction: Establish outcomes if hypotheses are true or false.
4. Conduct a Critical Experiment: Design an experiment to test the hypothesis.
5. Draw Conclusions and Revisions: Analyze data and revise hypotheses or strategies as necessary.

Echinacea as a case study:
- Observations lead to a hypothesis suggesting Echinacea reduces cold symptoms.
- Critical experiments uncover no significant effects, guiding future hypotheses and research on different variables to further explore Echinacea’s efficacy.

Distinguishing myth from scientifically backed facts is crucial for sound decision-making regarding health and wellness.