intro to psych

Etymology: from psyche (soul/mind) + logos (word).
Early view: mind was the focus; around 1920, psychology shifted to studying behavior because the mind is not directly observable. Psychology is the systematic study of behavior and experience, using multiple methodologies to study self, mind, brain, and behavior within sociocultural contexts.
Goals (four):
- Description: observe and name what is happening, where, to whom, and under what circumstances.
- Explanation: identify why the behavior occurs; requires testing.
- Prediction: determine what will happen in the future; requires prior observations, descriptions, and explanations.
- Control: modify behavior to change it from undesirable to desirable.
Not all studies aim to meet all four goals; some focus on description and/or prediction.

Philosophical foundations:
- Aristotle: mind–body are related as part of the same structure.
- Plato: dualism, mind can exist apart from the body.
- Descartes: pineal gland as seat of the soul.
Historical developments:
- 16th Century: belief in evil spirits causing problems; trephination (hole drilled in skull) to release spirits; ~7000 years ago.
- 17th Century: Descartes described nerves as hollow tubes carrying animal spirits like water through a pipe.
- 18th Century: Franz Josef Gall proposed phrenology (bumps on the skull reflect intelligence and character); Fechner conducted first scientific experiments on perception; Helmholtz conducted experiments in visual and auditory perception.

Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener; method of introspection to identify basic elements of psychological experience; belief that experiences can be broken into emotions and sensations.
Functionalism: William James; focuses on how the mind adapts and functions in the real world.
Gestalt Psychology: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Kafka, Wolfgang Kohler; "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts"; emphasizes holistic processing of experience.
Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud; emphasizes the unconscious mind, early experiences, and sexuality shaping behavior.
Behaviorism: B. F. Skinner, John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov; argues that psychology should study observable behavior; mind is not directly study-able.
Existentialism: Jean-Paul Sartre; emphasizes freedom and responsibility in development.
Humanistic Psychology: Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers; asserts inherent goodness and potential for growth; focus on healthy, functioning individuals.

Neurobiological/physiological: explains phenomena via brain, nervous system, endocrine system, immunity, and GI system.
Behavioristic: emphasizes learning principles, habit formation, observable behavior, and extinction processes.
Psychodynamic: emphasizes unconscious influences on behavior, with focus shifting from sexuality to self-development and other motivations.
Humanistic: emphasizes potential for growth, self-actualization, and active, intentional learning.
Evolutionary: looks at behavior through adaptation and survival; seeks universal mental traits and strategies (e.g., mating, fear, music).
Epigenetics: environment and context influence gene expression and phenotype; environment shapes thinking, feelings, and behavior.
Eco-cultural: behavior viewed within culture and ecology; questions universality of psychological knowledge.

Brain science and cognitive psychology: study thinking, memory, learning, and decision-making.
Climate and environmental psychology: study relationship between humans and the environment.
Clinical psychology: treatment of complex human problems.
Counseling psychology: applies psychology to help people cope with everyday problems.