Theme 1: General Introduction to Victims of Crime

General Introduction to Victims of Crime

• Theme Overview: This theme covers the key concepts, problems, and general profiles of crime victims. The approximate study time is nine (9) hours.
• Learning Outcomes:     * Process and appraise information regarding key concepts of crime victims.     * Identify problems experienced by victims.     * Examine the general profile of victims.
• Key Assessment Criteria:     * Define "crime victim."     * Describe positivist, radical, and critical approaches to the concept.     * Identify the four steps in the process approach to defining a crime victim.     * Discuss concepts such as victim risk, vulnerability, precipitation, facilitation, and opportunity.     * Investigate various problems and examine the general victim profile.

Defining Key Concepts in Victimology

• Victimology: Defined as the scientific study of the physical, emotional, and financial harm people suffer due to criminal activities. Victimologists study:     * The impact of injuries and losses.     * The handling of victims by the criminal justice system.     * Public reaction to the plight of victims.     * The precursors, vulnerabilities, event impacts, and recoveries related to victimizations (Dussich 2006:118).
• Crime Victim: A person physically or financially injured, or who had property taken or damaged by a criminal act (Dussich 2006:118).     * Broad definition: Individuals or groups suffering harm, mental injury, emotional distress, or loss of fundamental rights through acts violating laws, including misuse of power (Department of Justice and Constitutional Development).     * A person is a victim regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, apprehended, or convicted.
• Victimization: An occurrence where an individual, community, or organisation suffers significant damage or injury, representing a violation of human rights and a disturbance of safety (Dussich 2006:118).
• Components of a Criminal Event: Usually consists of the criminal, the victim, and the criminal act.

Historical Background and Origins

• Founders (1940s): Victimology was initiated by four scholars:     * Benjamin Mendelsohn (often called the "father of victimology" for his 1937 and 1940 writings).     * Hans Von Hentig.     * Stephen Schafer.     * Fredric Wertham.
• Etymology and Evolution:     * Prior to $1660$, the term "victim" was not standardly used for individuals harmed by others; the concept of a "crime victim" did not fully emerge until the $17 ext{th}$ century.
• African Victimology: Traced back to Egyptian principles circa $2400$ BCE, specifically the concept of "Maat." This is embodied in "Ubuntu," which encompasses truth, justice, propriety, harmony, balance, reciprocity, and order (Peacock 2020).

Paradigms of Victimology

• Conservative or Positivist Victimology:     * Also known as right realist, conventional, or administrative paradigms.     * Supporter of a retributive criminal justice system.     * Defines a victim as one who personally suffers harm/loss from another (Snyman 2005:8-9).     * Blame is placed solely on the offender; the victim is considered innocent of blame.
• Radical Victimology:     * Also known as left realism, radical left realism, or liberalism.     * Supports reform of the retributive system.     * Believes in a "flow of roles" between victim and offender; the perpetrator definition is broad (including the powerful).     * Victimization is seen as emanating from underlying forces between both parties; the victim may not be completely innocent.
• Critical Victimology:     * Also known as left idealism or radical idealism.     * Proponents may believe the criminal justice system should be minimal or shut down.     * Views offenders as victims of society, which is responsible for the crime.     * Argues victimisation is a result of social control and structure.     * Views measures like restitution or victim support as oppressive social control tools (Snyman 2005:9).

The Process Approach: Vianno’s Four Stages of Victimization

According to Vianno (2000:10), a person is a victim only after progressing through four stages:

1. Stage 1: Injury/Suffering: An individual or organisation is harmed. The focus is to register the harm so the person can regain control, regardless of whether the cause was criminal.
2. Stage 2: Perception of Unfairness: The injured party views the injury as unfair and unwarranted. Note: Silence from victims (like those in abusive relationships) can undermine official statistics.
3. Stage 3: Seeking Help: The individual recognises themselves as a victim and seeks assistance from social circles or the justice system. Fear of "victim blaming" often stops people at this stage.
4. Stage 4: Social Recognition: The individual recognizes the victimization, and society/agencies qualify the experience as harmful and provide redress. Societal beliefs (e.g., "discipline, not abuse") can impede this stage.

Classification of Victims

• Direct Victim: Someone murdered, raped, or defrauded (also called the primary victim).
• Indirect Victim: Family members, friends, colleagues, or community members affected by the crime (also called the secondary victim).

Crime Statistics and South African Trends

• 2022/2023 Statistics Comparison (SAPS/Stats SA):     * Contact Crimes: Increased from $174,157$ in $2019$ to $616,973$ in $2023$.     * Aggravated Robbery: $37,352$ ($2019$) vs $40,331$ ($2023$).     * Attempted Murder: $5,014$ ($2019$) vs $7,927$ ($2023$).     * Murder: $5,908$ ($2019$) vs $7,710$ ($2023$).     * Commercial Crime: $21,725$ ($2019$) vs $33,475$ ($2023$).     * Kidnapping: $1,841$ ($2019$) vs $4,577$ ($2023$).
• Housebreaking: The most prevalent household crime. $1,100,000$ households ($5.7\%$ of all households) reported housebreaking in $2022/23$.     * Reporting rates decreased from $59.2\%$ ($2021/22$) to $51.4\%$ ($2022/23$).
• Prison Population: As of March $2023$, South Africa has the largest prison population in Africa with $157,056$ individuals.
• Gender-Based Violence and Femicide (GBVF): Described as the "second pandemic" by President Cyril Ramaphosa in his $2025$ State of the Nation Address.
• Reasons for Contact Crime Increase:     * Socio-economic challenges and urbanisation.     * Social disintegration and political instability.     * Drug trafficking, gangs, and corruption.     * Gender-based violence and youth demographics.

Transnational and African Crime Trends (Interpol Report)

• Organised crime and violent extremism are increasingly linked.
• Drug Trafficking: Africa is a major hub; approximately $18$ tons of cocaine pass through West Africa annually from South America to Europe.
• Human Trafficking: Victims are sometimes auctioned in open markets or targeted for organ removal scams.
• Cybercrime: Rapid technological advancement has led to increases in ransomware, social media scams, and identity theft.

Impact of Victimization: Four Categories of Problems

1. Physical Problems

• Immediate Physiological Responses: Higher adrenaline, increased heart rate ($hyperventilation$), shaking, tears, numbness, and "dryness of mouth."
• Injury Severity: Categorised as minor, moderate (broken bones), or severe (gunshot/stabbing wounds). Injuries may be visible or invisible (internal bleeding).
• Long-term Effects: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), flashbacks, severe anxiety, and depression.

2. Economic Problems

• Direct Loss: Stolen property or damage.
• Indirect Costs: Fixing property, insurance premium increases ($markup$), security installation, medical/legal fees, travel to court, counseling, and funeral costs.
• Occupational Impact: Absence from work or loss of income. Extreme cases lead to bankruptcy or homelessness.

3. Emotional or Psychological Problems

The four typical reactions (CRCCV 2011) are:

1. Initial Impact: Shock, fear, anger, guilt, and disbelief.
2. Disorganisation: Nightmare, distress, loss of self-confidence/self-esteem.
3. Reconstruction/Acceptance: Coming to terms with the event and assessing personal growth.
4. Normalisation/Adjustment: Reclaiming one's life.

4. Social Relationship Problems

• Intimate Relationships: Victimization can cause divorce/separation. Child trauma correlates with lifetime anxiety and eating disorders (Dinisman & Moroz 2015:6).
• Occupational Functioning: Victims of violent partners are often late, absent, or lose jobs due to injury, fear, or partner sabotage.
• Social Functioning: Social withdrawal, fear of public spaces, and erosion of community cohesion. For example, $23\%$ of missing children are never found (Wolfson-Voster 2021).     * Case Study: Joshlin Smith (6-year-old) disappearance illustrating the erosion of community safety and trust.

General Profile of Crime Victims: Demographic Risk Factors

• Age:     * Youth ($15$ to $34$ years old) are significantly more likely to be victimised because of lifestyle, risk-taking, and receptorness to "bargains."     * Violence risk decreases significantly after age $25$.     * USA National Crime Victimisation Survey (NCVS) data: Teenagers ($16$-$19$) experience $45$ violent crimes per $1,000$ capita, while those over $65$ experience $2$ per $1,000$.     * Elderly Abuse: $1$ in $6$ people ($15.7\%$) aged $60+$ experienced abuse in the past year; $64.2\%$ of care facility staff reported perpetrating abuse (WHO 2022).
• Gender:     * Men have a higher risk of aggravated assault and robbery ($2 imes$ more likely than women).     * Women are $6 imes$ more likely to be victims of rape and domestic violence.     * A major difference: Women are mostly victimised by acquaintances/family, while men are mostly victimised by strangers.
• Marital Status:     * Separated or single individuals have the highest rates of violent victimisation.     * Widowed individuals have the lowest risk.
• Race and Ethnicity:     * Disparities exist due to economic inequality. Black and mixed-ethnicity individuals often experience more personal/household crimes.     * South African statistics show black people experience higher rates of violent crime often linked to living in high-risk areas.
• Income:     * Poor people are disproportionately affected by violent crimes.     * Wealthy people are targets for personal theft (pickpocketing/snatching) because of "status symbols" like luxury cars.
• Province and Neighbourhood:     * Gauteng ($27.9\%$) has the highest concentration of murder, assault, and theft cases, followed by Western Cape ($19.1\%$) and KZN ($15.7\%$).     * Dangerous Neighbourhoods: Cape Town CBD, Johannesburg CBD, Durban CBD, Mitchells Plain, and Phoenix.     * Urban areas have higher crime due to anonymity and social neglect, whereas rural areas may have stronger social bonds (Ubuntu).

Repeat Victimization

• Definition: The repeated criminal victimization of the same person, household, or target within a specific period (e.g., $1$ year).
• Assumptions:     * Past victimization is the best predictor of future victimization.     * The risk of subsequent victimization increases with each incident.     * Victimization tends to occur soon after a previous incident.
• Explanations (Wiesel 2005):     * The Flag Explanation: Relates to the vulnerability/attractiveness of the target. Examples: corner houses (visibility), convenience stores (long hours), taxi drivers (night work), and "hot products" (luxury cars).     * The Boost Explanation: Relates to repeat offenders who gain "valuable information" (e.g., security gaps, when no one is home) from their first successful crime to reoffend.

Questions and Discussion

Points to Ponder

1. What comes to mind when you hear "victim"? Discussion on stereotypes vs. definitions.
2. Why is there an increase in contact crimes? Analysis of socio-economic factors in South Africa.
3. Does mutual partner violence fit the Radical paradigm? Debating if the victim is ever "not innocent."
4. Are rural areas safer? Evaluating if the principle of Ubuntu/interdependency reduces victimization.
5. How did Joshlin Smith's abduction affect her community? Examining the erosion of social cohesion.
6. Evaluate your own risk: Considering demographics (age, gender, income, neighborhood) to formulate a personal risk profile.