Motivation and Emotion

Overview of Motivation and Emotion

  • Key Theme: Motivation refers to the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior.

Characteristics Associated with Motivation

  • Motivation: Defined as the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior.
  • Three Basic Characteristics:
    • Activation: Initiation of a behavior.
    • Persistence: Sustaining behavior over time.
    • Intensity: The vigor of the response.

Classic Theories of Motivation

  • Key Theme: Classic theories of motivation provide foundational concepts relevant to human motivation.
Instinct Theories
  • Overview: Proposed by figures such as William McDougall and William James, these theories suggest that certain motivated behaviors are innate and arise from evolutionary programming.
  • Key Points:
    • Theories categorize behaviors but lack explanations for their motivational relationships.
    • The belief that human behaviors have genetic influences remains relevant today.
James’s List of Human Instincts
  • Instincts Include:
    • Attachment, Resentment, Fear, Curiosity,
    • Disgust, Shyness, Rivalry, Sociability,
    • Greediness, Bashfulness, Suspicion, Cleanliness,
    • Hunting, Play, Modesty, Shame, Love, Anger, Parental love.
Drive Theories
  • Overview: Behavioral motivation is driven by the desire to reduce tensions from unmet biological needs, promoting actions for drive reduction.
    • Concepts:
    • Drive: Internal state that promotes behavior.
    • Homeostasis: Process of maintaining internal balance.
Incentive Theories
  • Overview: Suggests behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards or recognition.
  • Key Insight: Learning principles significantly inform these theories.
  • Integration of Theories: Combination of drive and incentive theories accounts for diverse motivational behaviors.
Arousal Theory
  • Concept: People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, which varies individually.
    • Responses to Arousal Levels:
    • Low arousal = boredom, prompting motivation to increase arousal.
    • High arousal = discomfort, leading to motivation for a calming environment.
    • Yerkes–Dodson Law: A framework that posits an optimal arousal level for performance.
Optimal Stimulation as a Motivator
  • Sensation Seeking: The degree to which an individual seeks high levels of sensory and physical arousal through diverse activities.
Humanistic Theories
  • Pioneers: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasized psychological and cognitive factors in motivation.
  • Core Idea: People are motivated to realize their personal potential.
  • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A structured model demonstrating progression from basic needs to self-fulfillment needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

  • Overview: Proposes that human motivation evolves from physiological to psychological and eventually to self-fulfillment needs.
  • Contributions:
    • Enhanced psychology's focus on healthy personal development.
    • Provided insights into belonging and love needs.
  • Limitations:
    • Lack of research support for level progression.
    • Vagueness of self-actualization as a measurable goal.
Need to Belong
  • Definition: The drive to form lasting positive relationships characterized by mutual concern (Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary).
  • Significance: Belongingness is essential for personal well-being and species survival.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
  • Proponents: Deci and Ryan.
  • Concept: Optimal functioning occurs when innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are met.
  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Individuals who satisfy these needs internalize external motivators into their identity.
Achievement Goal Theory
  • Focus: Direct behavior towards success in tasks.
  • Definitions:
    • Achievement Motivation: Desire to excel or outperform others.
    • Mastery Goals: Generally linked to a growth mindset.
    • Performance Goals: Often associated with a fixed mindset.
  • Cultural Differences:
    • Individualistic cultures favor personal achievement.
    • Collectivistic cultures emphasize social orientation in success.
Growth Mindset
  • Definition: The belief that abilities and intelligence can develop with effort.

Hunger and Eating

  • Key Theme: Hunger, while primarily biological, is influenced by a mix of biological, social, and psychological factors.
Energy Homeostasis
  • Concept: The balance of calories consumed versus calories expended.
    • Mechanisms:
    • Food is digested by enzymes and absorbed, converting into glucose for energy.
    • Role of Insulin: Regulates glucose and influences hunger and weight.
    • Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): Measures energy used for basic body functions.
    • Body fat stores excess energy.
Regulation of Eating Behavior through Conditioning
  • Classical Conditioning: Time cues and familiar environments can evoke physiological hunger signals.
  • Operant Conditioning: Positive reinforcement from favorable tastes and negative reinforcement from alleviating hunger can affect food choices.
Why Do We Stop Eating?
  • Satiation: The feeling of fullness prompted by sensory feedback from the body.
  • Signals Involved:
    • Stretch receptors and chemical signals from the stomach.
    • Sensory-specific Satiety: The phenomenon where the desire to eat decreases for specific foods leading to a craving for different foods (like dessert).
Long-Term Regulation of Body Weight
  • Complexities: Influenced by various factors.
  • Set-Point Theory: Suggests there is a natural or optimal weight that the body defends by regulating hunger and metabolic processes.
  • Thrifty Gene Hypothesis: An evolutionary perspective asserting genetic influences on weight regulation.

Weight-Related Stigma (Part 1)

  • Global Trends: Increased calorie consumption and decreased activity have led to population weight increases.
  • Concerns: Rising BMI often elicits alarm due to associations with life expectancy risks.
  • Stigmatization Issues: Leads to weight shaming, prompting a shift from weight-centric to health-focused evaluations.

Approaches to Understanding Weight and Health

  • Overemphasis on Weight: Can cause stigma and