Classic rape: rape committed by a stranger, with the use of a weapon, resulting in serious bodily injury to the victim
Acquaintance rape: rape committed by someone known to the victim
Crimes against property
Eg. larceny, motor vehicle theft, burglary, arson
Larceny: simple theft which does not entail force or the use of force, or breaking and entering
Vice crime/victimless crime: illegal activities that have no complaining participant(s) and are often thought of as crimes against morality
Eg. illegal drugs, engaging in or soliciting prostitution, illegal gambling, pornography
Organized crime: activity conducted by members of an organization arranged in a hierarchal structure devoted primarily to making money through illegal means
White collar crime: fraud committed by business and government professionals
Characterized by deceit, concealment, or violation of trust
Motivated by financial gain and do not use physical threat or violence
Reasons for lack of punishment in white collar crime:
Organizations dismiss parties involved
Crimes go undetected within the complex bureaucracies of organizations
Prosecution is difficult due to the burden of time and resources
Deferred Prosecution Agreements (DPAs) do not require a guilty plea and are used as alternatives to adjudication and usually only require large fine by offending entity
Occupational crime: motivated by financial individual gain and include employee theft, embezzlement, and insurance fraud
Corporate crime: benefits a business entity
Eg. price fixing, antitrust violations (unfair practices to shut out other competing corporations), security fraud (illegal investment behaviors)
Corporate violence: the production of unsafe products and failure to provide a safe working environment for employees
Political crime: against the government or serves the interests of government officials
Cybercrime/computer crime: electronic devices are the targets or means of criminal activity
Eg. hacking, identity theft, internet fraud, ransomware, online child pornography, child sexual exploitation
Ransomware: a form of malware intrusion in which a criminal holds an individual’s or company’s computer “hostage”
Identity theft was the second common consumer complaint in 2019.
Individuals with low levels of self-control, risk avoidance, and self-awareness, along with high levels of trust, are more susceptible to internet fraud.
Online gaming is a common target for child sexual exploitation.
Juvenile delinquency and gangs
Status offense: a violation that can only be committed by a minor
Eg. running away from home, truancy, underage drinking
Delinquent offense: a violation that can also be committed by adults
Excluding traffic violations, minors were 7% of all arrests in 2019
Like adults, juveniles commit a higher number of property than violent crimes, and males are more likely to be arrested than females.
Mara Salvatrucha (MS13)
One of the largest gangs in the United States
Originated in the 1970s in Los Angeles by El Salvadorian refugees
Primarily a social organization and secondarily a criminal organization
Demographic Patterns of Crime
Gender
Women are less likely to commit crime than men.
2015–2019 arrest rates for women increased but gender gap remains
Feminist criminology: focuses on gender inequality crime and victimhood
Arrest rates for runaway juvenile females are higher than males due to sexual abuse in homes and paternalistic attitudes by police toward girls.
Differential involvement: the idea that certain groups of people are more likely to be involved in crime
Eg. men are statistically more likely to commit crime than women
Age
Criminal activity is more common among younger than older people.
Protected from many of the legal penalties.
More likely to be unemployed or employed in low-wage jobs.
Peer influence is stronger.
Race and Social Class
Black people are 13% of population but account for 36.4% of all arrests for violent offenses and 29.8% of all arrests for property offenses.
Difference in police practices in Black and White neighborhoods
In cities with Black mayors or a civilian police review boards, the percentage of Black residents in a neighborhood do not predict violent crime.
Racial profiling: the practice of targeting suspects based on race
People of color are overrepresented in the lower classes.
Region
Violent crime rates increase as population size increases.
Social control is higher in small groups that socialize their members to engage in law-abiding behavior.
Large concentrations of poor and unemployed people often correlate with higher crime rates.
Violent and property crimes are highest in southern states.
High rates of poverty
High rates of gun ownership
Warmer climate that facilitates victimization by increasing the frequency of social interaction
Can be explained by subculture of violence theory
Victimization Experiences
Women have a higher rate than men.
People of color have a higher rate than white people.
People between the ages of 18-24 have a higher rate than the general population.
Societal Costs of Crime and Social Control
Physical injury and loss of life
Eg. Environmental pollutants produced by multinational corporations.
U.S. Public Health Service cited violence as one of the top health concerns facing Americans.
High price of crime
Direct losses and illicit transfer of property due to crimes
Medical spending and economic losses of criminal violence
Spending on illicit activities
Consumer spending on prevention and protection
Government spending to control crime
Social and psychological costs
Public fear shapes individual and social actions.
Americans believe crime is a serious problem.
Safety gender gap: women express significantly lower rates of feeling safe than men
Cost to children and families
50% of adults have experienced having a family member in jail or prison.
Financial toll including bail, court costs, restitution, loss of income, etc.
Physical and mental health consequences
Family stability suffers
Strategies for Action
Local crime-fighting initiatives
Technology
Hard technology: drones, metal detectors, biometric surveillance, etc.
Biometric surveillance: surveillance used to identify a specific person through the imaging of their distinct physical characteristics
Soft technology: Amber Alert, social media, facial recognition, etc.
Youth and community programs
Rethinking law enforcement practices
Overt differential law enforcement: police officer biases
Covert differential law enforcement: cultural and structural factors
Differential involvement: frequency with law based on behaviors
Breeding ground hypothesis: argues that incarceration serves to increase criminal behavior through the transmission of criminal skills, techniques, and motivations
Criminal justice policy
U.S. criminal justice system is based on deterrence or the threat of harm.
Rehabilitation versus incapacitation and impact on recidivism (reoffending)
Breeding ground hypothesis: argues that incarceration increases because people learn criminal skills in prisons
Lowering prison sentences and capital punishment reform could be an option in lowering recidivism rates
Qualified immunity: a legal principle that protects police officers from lawsuits if, at the time of their alleged misconduct, they did not know their behavior was unlawful
Probation vs. incapacitation
Probation: the conditional release of an offender who, for a specific time period and subject to certain conditions, remains under court supervision in the community
Incapacitation: criminal justice philosophy that argues that recidivism can be reduced by placing offenders in prison so that they are unable to commit further crimes against the general public
Parole: release from prison, for a specific time period and subject to certain conditions, before an inmate’s sentence is finished
Federal and state laws
Gun control and other policies
International efforts
Interpol: the largest international police organization in the world