History of New African Kingdoms and the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Common Themes of the New African Empires

• Wealth and Firepower: African empires expanded primarily by leveraging the wealth and advanced weaponry (firepower) acquired from their European trading partners.

• Reliance on the Slave Trade: These kingdoms became increasingly dependent on the slave trade. This reliance ultimately weakened the kingdoms to the point where they were completely annexed or taken over by European countries in the late $1800\text{s}$.

• Depopulation: A major factor in the internal weakening of these empires was the depopulation of both the urban centers and the countryside due to the continuous extraction of people through the slave trade.

• Regional Instability: Involvement in the slave trade created intense regional instability, leading to the creation of many enemies for these empires as they raided neighboring areas.

• The Bight of Benin:

  • From the $1600\text{s}$ to the $1800\text{s}$, this was the most densely populated location in Africa.

  • It served as a primary focus for the slave trade, along with the coasts of Kongo and Angola.

Characteristics of Slavery in Africa

• Distinction from the Americas: Slavery within Africa was different from the "chattel slavery" practiced in the Americas (where individuals were considered personal property for life).

• Social Class: Slaves in Africa were considered a specific social class, though the actual trading of slaves was a frequent and common practice.

• Methods of Enslavement: Individuals typically became slaves through two main avenues: as a result of debt or as captives of war.

Oyo Kingdom

• People: Consisted of Yoruba-speaking people.

• Rise to Power: Rose to prominence in the $1500\text{s}$ through strategic trade with the Portuguese.

• Slave Trade Significance: By the $1700\text{s}$, approximately half ($50\%$) of all African slaves originated from three specific kingdoms: Oyo, Benin, and Dahomey (all located in the Bight of Benin).

• Factors Contributing to Oyo’s Success:

  1. Political Organization: Advanced internal structure.

  2. Military Strength: Maintained a formidable military force.

  3. Trade and Commerce: Extensive economic networks.

  4. Agricultural Productivity: Benefited from fertile lands and favorable climatic conditions.

  5. Diplomacy and Alliance: Skilled in external relations.

  6. Administrative Efficiency: Effective governance of resources and people.

  7. Cultural Influence: Spread of Yoruba culture and norms.

• Economic Focus: Oyo organized specific slave routes and conducted raids into small, neighboring inland kingdoms. Eventually, this intense focus on wealth accumulation and the slave trade weakened the state and the military.

Kingdom of Benin (Edo)

• Origins: Founded in the $1200\text{s}$; grew wealthy through trade with various inland kingdoms.

• European Contact: First encountered the Portuguese, followed by other European nations later.

• Trade Goods: Initially, Europeans sought gold, pepper, art, and ivory. Later, the focus shifted heavily toward slavery.

• Slave Raiding: Like the Oyo, Benin expanded its slave supply by raiding smaller neighboring kingdoms.

• Cultural Legacy: The kingdom is most famous for its high-quality works of art.

• Downfall of Benin:

  • Internal infighting among members of the royal family.

  • Devastating Civil Wars.

  • Increasing struggles to resist foreign (European) interference.

Asante (Ashanti) Empire

• Origins: Emerged in modern-day Ghana, centered around the city of Kumasi. Kumasi remains the ceremonial capital for the Asante people today.

• The Gold Coast: The region was named the "Gold Coast" by Europeans because of the massive volume of gold traded there. Ghana remains the largest gold producer in Africa.

• Portuguese Trade: The Asante grew powerful through trade with Portugal, which provided them with the money and weapons necessary for expansion.

• Power Peaks: By $1701$, the Asante had become the most powerful kingdom in the Gold Coast region.

• Shift to Slavery: While gold was the original core of their trade, the focus shifted to slavery by the $1700\text{s}$. Originally, the Asante traded slaves to people in the north, but they eventually transitioned to Europeans as their main partners.

• Decline: After a dominant period ending in $1790$, the empire faced constant conflict with neighbors due to slave raids. The kingdom weakened gradually until it fell to British conquest in $1896$.

Kingdom of Kongo

• Founding: Founded in $1390$; the capital was Mbanza Konga (located in modern Angola).

• European Entry: The Portuguese arrived in $1483$ during the reign of King Nzinga a Nkuwa.

• Christian Conversion: Both King Nzinga a Nkuwa and his son, Mvemba a Nzinga, were baptized as Catholics, taking the names Joao I Nzinga and Afonso I Mvemba a Nzinga, respectively.

• Reign of Afonso I:

  • Expanded borders and strengthened trade with Portugal.

  • Embraced Catholicism and studied theology to find ways to syncretize Catholicism with indigenous Kongolese religions.

  • Sent his son, Henrique, to Europe for education; Henrique became a Bishop in the Catholic Church.

  • Established the Roman Catholic Church of Kongo and built religious schools, leading to widespread literacy among the nobility.

• Slave Trade Oversight: Slavery already existed in Kongo. As the Portuguese expanded the trade, Afonso I created a committee to ensure people were not being enslaved illegally.

• Colonial Transition: Kongo became politically weaker over time, becoming a subordinate of Portugal in $1857$ and a formal colony in $1910$.

The Tupac Amaru Rebellion ($1780\text{--}1783$)

• Definitions:

  • Rebellion: The act of open, violent resistance to a government or ruler.

  • Revolt: To rise in rebellion; an attempt at rebellion.

• Location and Leadership: Occurred in Peru. Led by Tupac Amaru II (born Jos Gabriel Condorcanqui).

  • Amaru II was of full Incan descent and was a recognized chief among the Incan elite.

  • He took the name Tupac Amaru II after the last Incan Emperor, whom he claimed as an ancestor.

• Causes of the Rebellion:

  • Continued forced labor and tribute despite the official abolition of the encomienda system.

  • High taxes on indigenous people and frequent price gouging by merchants.

  • Use of the mi'ta (draft labor) in the mining industry, which increased in the $1700\text{s}$.

  • Renewed interest in Incan heritage among elites, spurred by the book Royal Commentaries of the Incas (which presented an idealized history).

  • A prophecy suggesting the Inca would rise and retake their empire.

• Major Events:

  • Nov. 4, 1780: Amaru II and supporters took a Spanish judge in Tinta hostage after a party.

  • Nov. 10, 1780: The judge was executed. Amaru II issued a declaration banning the mi'ta, limiting Spanish authority, and increasing the power of local chiefs.

  • Army Growth: His forces grew from $6,000$ to between $40,000\text{--}60,000$ men. They successfully routed a force of $900$ Spanish soldiers.

  • Battle of Sangarara: A victory that led to increased indigenous support but caused Amaru’s excommunication from the Catholic Church after his forces destroyed a church (this diminished support among Criollos).

  • Siege of Cusco (Dec. 1780–Jan. 1781): The Spanish, though outnumbered, had superior weaponry and organization and repelled the siege.

  • Execution: On April 5, 1781, Amaru, his wife (who was also his co-commander), and others were captured. On May 15, Amaru was tortured, quartered, and beheaded. His wife was also executed.

• Role of Women: Women were highly active, making up $32$ out of $73$ identified commanders in the rebellion.

Slave Revolts and Maroon Societies

• Slave Revolts: Extremely common where slavery existed. Most were small-scale, plantation-level, and poorly documented due to the risk of brutal violence and total control by owners.

  • Planned vs. Spontaneous: Some were spontaneous; others (especially in North America and Haiti) were extremely well-organized across multiple plantations.

  • Success Rates: Most failed because slaves were usually armed with farming tools/blades against people with firearms.

  • Haitian Revolution ($1791\text{--}1804$): The most successful slave revolt. Slaves defeated the colonial French government and the French military to gain independence.

• Consequences of Failed Revolts:

  • New laws restricting slave movement.

  • Increased fear and suspicion among slave owners.

  • Restrictions on gatherings, often allowing only religious meetings under supervision.

• Maroon Societies: Settlements of escaped slaves in remote areas (swamps, mountains, plateaus) using ambush tactics for defense.

  • Case Study: Gaspar Yanga (1570): Yanga, believed to be African tribal royalty from Gabon, led slaves from a plantation to the highlands of Veracruz, Mexico.

  • His settlement survived for $30$ years via caravan ambushes.

  • In $1609$, Spain sent $5,000$ men to attack Yanga’s force of $500$ (only $100$ had guns). Yanga offered a treaty for freedom; Spanish fought for $9$ more years before finally signing a treaty in $1619$ recognizing the settlement as free.

  • Yanga is known as "The First Liberator."

The Pueblo Revolt ($1680$)

• Context: An uprising of Puebloan people in Nuevo Mexico (modern New Mexico) led by Po'Pay starting August 10–21, 1680.

• Causes:

  • Spanish and Franciscan monks began suppressing Pueblo religious practices in the late $1670\text{s}$.

  • A massive drought and famine hit the region in $1670$.

  • Po'Pay was arrested and later released, prompting him to organize the revolt.

• The Conflict:

  • The revolt began early due to a leak of information. On August 13, all Spanish settlements were destroyed and Santa Fe was taken.

  • The Governor fled to El Paso del Norte (modern El Paso, TX). The Pueblos allowed the Spanish to flee without attacking them further.

• Outcome: Po'Pay assumed leadership, but eventual internal in-fighting and continued droughts led to the collapse of the Pueblo alliance. The Spanish reconquered the area in $1692$ but generally left the Pueblo religious practices alone afterward.

The Ming Dynasty ($1368\text{--}1644$)

• Vocabulary:

  • Tribute System: Method of trade assuming foreign lands were subordinate to China.

  • Confucianism: Philosophy founded by Confucius ($551\text{--}579\text{ BCE}$).

  • Single-whip Tax System: Yearly tax paid in silver rather than rice.

  • Mandarin: High-ranking official who passed the civil service exam.

  • Eunuch: Castrated men serving in the imperial court; rivals to the Mandarins.

• Rise: The Yuan Dynasty (Mongols) collapsed due to the Black Death (Bubonic Plague) in the $1200\text{s}$, droughts, and famines. The Red Turban Rebellion ($1351$) united anti-Yuan factions.

• Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang): The first Ming emperor ($1368$).

  • Re-instated Confucianism as the state philosophy.

  • Instituted land reforms, military reorganization, and a secret police force.

  • Reintroduced paper money and copper coins.

  • At his death, $38$ concubines were killed; he was buried in Nanjing.

Principles of Confucianism

1. R ( 䈀 ): Benevolence/kindness. "Do to others as you would want them to do unto you."

2. Y ( 䈀 ): Righteousness; the recognition of how to act in situations.

3. L ( 礼 ): Proper rite; performing rituals in accordance with the Law of Heaven ( 天 ).

4. Zh ( 智 ): Knowledge; education and learning.

5. Xn ( 信 ): Integrity; honesty and incorruptibility.

• Filial Piety: Central belief in respecting social hierarchy and ancestors.

• Junzi ( 君子 ): A "superior person" or "gentleman" who has mastered all components of Confucianism.

• Imperial Examination: Required for government service. Involved a regional exam, then a 3-day government exam requiring the hand-writing of five Chinese classics from memory. One mistake meant failure.

The Yongle Emperor and Zheng He

• Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di): The fourth son of Hongwu. He took the throne in $1402$ after a rebellion against his nephew (Jianwen).

  • Moved the capital to Beijing.

  • Built the Forbidden City, Temple of Heaven, and the Porcelain Tower (Nanjing).

  • Commissioned the Yongle Encyclopedia ($1408$), the world's largest encyclopedia at the time.

• Zheng He: A Muslim court eunuch and diplomat who led the "Treasure Fleet."

  • Treasure Expeditions ($1405\text{--}1433$): $7$ voyages throughout the Indian Ocean to collect tribute.

  • Fleet Size: Included $200\text{--}300$ ships, including massive "Treasure Ships."

  • Trade: China gave silk; received silver, spices, and exotic animals (elephants, giraffes).

  • End of Voyages: Expeditions stopped in $1433$ due to high costs and the Mandarins' isolationist policy.

Fall of the Ming Dynasty

• Financial Strain: A long war with Japan in Korea drained the treasury.

• Silver Crisis: Spain and Portugal (under Phillip IV) stopped routing silver through the Pacific. Japan also ceased trade.

• Environmental Factors: The "Little Ice Age" caused mass famine.

• Internal Collapse: Corruption among eunuchs and a rebellion in the Northwest ($1630$) weakened the state. The Manchus from the Northeast invaded, establishing the Qing Dynasty in $1636$.

The Qing Dynasty

• Vocabulary:

  • Manchu: Ethnic group from Manchuria.

  • Banner System: Military organization where companies were identified by color (yellow, blue, red, or white).

  • Canton System: Single-port trading system limiting Europeans to Canton (Guangzhou).

• Expansion:

  • Kangxi Emperor (r. $1661\text{--}1722$): Reigned for $61$ years. Took Taiwan in $1683$. Forced Russia out of Albazin, leading to the Treaty of Nerchinsk (Russian trade rights vs. territory).

  • Qianlong Emperor (r. $1735\text{--}1796$): Height of expansion. Conquered Tibet and the Dzungar Khanate (Xinjiang). Failed in Burma, Nepal, and Vietnam.

The Opium Wars

• The Opium Trade: Refined poppy product, highly addictive and dangerous. Britain began smuggling opium into China to balance trade, as tobacco was outlawed.

• Escalation: By $1838$, Britain imported $1,400\text{ tons}$ of opium per year into China.

• The First Opium War: Administrator Lin Zexu confiscated and destroyed opium. Britain responded with war, occupying Guangzhou and Hong Kong.

• Treaty of Nanking:

  • UK received $5$ new port cities (including Shanghai).

  • Hong Kong handed over on a $99\text{-year}$ lease.

  • Qing paid $6\text{ million silver dollars}$ for destroyed opium. This began the "Century of Humiliation."

• The Second Opium War: Triggered by the seizure of a British ship and the death of French missionaries. British and French forces burned the Old Summer Palace in Beijing.

• Treaty of Tientsin:

  • Established extraterritoriality (foreigners governed by their own laws, not Chinese laws).

  • China forbidden from calling Europeans "barbarians."

  • China paid $2\text{ million taels}$ of silver to France and $4\text{ million}$ to Britain.