CD Retake

Piaget’s theory  

1. Schemas: mental frameworks or patterns of thought that help individuals understand and interpret the world. like "categories" in the mind that organize knowledge and experiences.

   • Example: A child’s schema for "dog" might include four legs, a tail, and barking.

2. Assimilation: the process of fitting new information into existing schemas.

   • Example: A child sees a new type of dog and recognizes it as a dog because it fits their existing schema.

3. Accommodation: when new experiences do not fit into existing schemas, the schema must be modified or a new one must be created.

   • Example: A child sees a cat for the first time and initially calls it a dog. After being corrected, they create a new schema for "cat."

Disequilibrium: when new information doesn’t fit into current schemas, causing confusion.

Equilibration: the process of restoring balance by modifying schemas through assimilation or accommodation.

Example: A child who thinks all flying things are birds experiences disequilibrium when they see a bat. They achieve equilibrium after learning the difference between birds and bats.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)

   • Learning through senses and motor activities.

   • Develops object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).

2. Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)
   
   

   • Develops language and symbolic thinking, but struggles with logic.

   • Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing things from another’s perspective.

   • Lack of conservation: Doesn’t understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)
   
   

   • Logical thinking develops, but only with concrete, hands-on experiences.

   • Gains conservation, reversibility, and classification skills.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
   
   

   • Can think abstractly, hypothetically, and systematically.

   • Develops problem-solving, deductive reasoning, and moral thinking.

   • Example: A teenager can understand and debate complex ideas like justice or hypothetical scenarios.

Information Processing approach 

The Information Processing Approach is a cognitive framework that compares human thinking to how a computer processes information. It focuses on how information is received, stored, and retrieved.

(a) Elements of the Stores Model

The stores model, also known as the multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), describes how information flows through different stages of memory:

1. Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory input (visual, auditory, etc.) before attention selects what moves forward.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily holds and processes information; capacity is limited (7±2 items).

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely for later retrieval.

 Role of Attention and Rehearsal

- Attention: Filters and selects information from sensory memory for further processing in short-term memory.

- Rehearsal: Repeating information helps transfer it from short-term to long-term memory (e.g., memorizing a phone number).

 (b) Newer Conceptualization: Neural Network Model

The neural network (connectionist) memory and thought emerge from interconnected networks of neurons. 

- Parallel Processing: Information is processed simultaneously across multiple pathways.

- Strengthening Connections: Learning occurs by strengthening neural connections based on experience.

- Distributed Representation: Memories are stored across multiple areas of the brain rather than in distinct locations.

This newer model is seen as more biologically realistic and explains phenomena like pattern recognition, learning, and automatic processing more effectively than the stores model.

3. Gene-Environment correlation (active, evocative, and passive), canalization, and epigenetics

 Gene-Environment Correlation  

Gene-environment correlation refers to how a person's genetic makeup influences the environments they experience. There are three types:

1. Passive Gene-Environment Correlation  

   - Parents pass down both genes and an environment that supports those genes.  

   - Example: A child inherits a genetic predisposition for intelligence and grows up in a home filled with books and intellectual discussions.

2. Evocative Gene-Environment Correlation  

   - A person’s genetic traits elicit specific responses from their environment.  

   - Example: A naturally cheerful baby receives more positive interactions from caregivers, reinforcing social behavior.

3. Active Gene-Environment Correlation (Niche-Picking)  

   - Individuals actively choose environments that match their genetic predispositions.  

   - Example: A musically gifted child seeks out music lessons and joins a band, further developing their talent.

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 Canalization  

Canalization refers to how genetic influences shape development in a way that is resistant to environmental changes. Some traits are highly canalized, meaning they develop similarly across different environments unless extreme conditions interfere.  

- Example: Basic motor skills like walking and crawling develop in most children, regardless of minor environmental differences.  

- Highly canalized traits (e.g., babbling in infants) are less influenced by experience, while less canalized traits (e.g., intelligence) are more flexible and shaped by the environment.

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 Epigenetics  

Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors, without altering the DNA sequence itself. These changes can be temporary or even passed down to future generations.  

- Mechanism: Chemical modifications (e.g., DNA methylation) turn genes "on" or "off" in response to environmental influences.  

- Example: A person with a genetic predisposition for obesity might only develop obesity if they grow up in a high-calorie, low-exercise environment.  

- Another example: Trauma or stress can alter gene expression and potentially affect future generations.

Epigenetics highlights how genes and environment interact dynamically rather than operating independently.

 1. Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development  

- Continuous (Incremental) Development  

  - Development happens gradually, like a smooth curve of growth.  

  - Small changes accumulate over time.  

  - Example: Learning language or improving memory skills.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Behaviorism (Skinner, Watson): Learning occurs gradually through reinforcement.  

    - Information Processing Theory: Cognitive development is like a computer gradually improving its processing abilities.  

- Discontinuous (Stage-based) Development  

  - Development occurs in distinct stages, where sudden shifts happen.  

  - People go through specific stages in a set order.  

  - Example: A caterpillar turning into a butterfly.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Children move through qualitative stages (e.g., sensorimotor, preoperational, etc.).  

    - Freud’s Psychosexual Stages: Personality develops in stages (oral, anal, phallic, etc.).  

    - Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Life progresses through social crises (trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion, etc.).  

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 2. Nature vs. Nurture  

- Nature (Biological Influence on Development)  

  - Development is largely shaped by genetics and biological processes.  

  - Example: A child with a genetic talent for music will develop it regardless of their environment.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Maturational Theories (Gesell): Development unfolds according to a genetic timetable.  

    - Evolutionary Theories (Bowlby’s Attachment Theory): Human behaviors evolved for survival (e.g., infants are biologically wired to form attachments).  

- Nurture (Environmental Influence on Development)  

  - Development is shaped by experience, learning, and culture.  

  - Example: A child’s intelligence is shaped by schooling, parental guidance, and social interactions.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Behaviorism (Skinner, Watson): Learning is shaped by rewards and punishments.  

    - Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Development depends on cultural and social interactions.  

- Interactionist Perspective (Nature + Nurture Combined)  

  - Modern theories usually acknowledge that both genes and environment work together.  

  - Example: A child might have a genetic predisposition for intelligence, but without proper education, they won’t reach their full potential.  

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 3. Child as Active vs. Passive in Development  

- Active Child (Child Shapes Their Own Development)  

  - Children play an important role in their learning and development.  

  - They explore, seek knowledge, and influence their own experiences.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory: Children construct their own understanding through exploration.  

    - Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Children actively engage with their environment and learn through social interactions.  

- Passive Child (Development Happens to the Child)  

  - Development is shaped by external forces like parenting, culture, and biology.  

  - Children absorb knowledge but don’t actively shape their own learning.  

  - Theories that fit:  

    - Behaviorism (Skinner, Watson): Children learn passively through reinforcement and punishment.  

   - Freud’s Psychosexual Theory: Early life experiences shape development in ways beyond the child’s control.  

Reinforcement and Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, is a learning process where behaviors are shaped by their consequences. These consequences can either increase (reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

1. Reinforcement – Increases Behavior

Reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to happen again in the future. There are two types:

• Positive Reinforcement (Adding a pleasant stimulus)
  A desirable reward is given after a behavior, encouraging repetition.

  • Example: A worker receives a bonus for excellent performance, encouraging hard work.

• Negative Reinforcement (Removing an unpleasant stimulus)

  • Something unpleasant is taken away, reinforcing the behavior.

  • Example: A student studies hard to avoid parental scolding, increasing their study habits.

2. Punishment – Decreases Behavior

Punishment makes a behavior less likely to happen in the future. There are two types:

• Positive Punishment (Adding an unpleasant stimulus)
  
  

  • Something undesirable is given to discourage behavior.

  • Example: A child touches a hot stove and feels pain, making them less likely to touch it again.

  • Example: A student gets detention for being late to class, decreasing tardiness.

• Negative Punishment (Removing a pleasant stimulus)
  
  

  • Something enjoyable is taken away to reduce behavior.

  • Example: A teenager loses phone privileges after breaking curfew, reducing future rule-breaking.

Example: A child has their toy taken away for misbehaving, making them less likely to misbehave.