1/22 Demuth 2019 The Walrus and the Bureaucrat

The Bering Strait Ecosystem: Overview

  • Geography: The Bering Strait separates Russia's Chukchi Peninsula from Alaska, approximately sixty miles apart.

  • Ecological Dynamics:

    • Winter ice bridges the strait, transforming the surface into stillness.

    • Subsurface life: hardy algae stay under the ice; spring melting reveals photosynthetic potential, enhancing nutrient accessibility.

    • Primary Productivity: Rich in phytoplankton; supports a diverse food web including crustaceans, fish (salmon, sole), and birds.

  • Pacific Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens):

    • Over 100,000 individuals inhabit Beringia; vital for local ecosystems.

    • Prefer winter ice for protection; can weigh over one ton and live up to forty years.

Historical Context: Human and Walrus Interactions

  • End of the 19th Century:

    • The walrus population reflected the geopolitical changes in the early 20th century with the U.S. and Russia patrolling the waters more rigorously.

    • The walrus served as a resource amidst economic and ideological tensions between capitalism and communism.

  • Cultural Significance:

    • Indigenous communities (Chukchi and Yupik) established profound relationships with walrus, intertwined in rituals and ancestral stories.

Economic Systems and Energy Management

  • Energy Economics:

    • Described as environmental management states, both the United States and Soviet Union engaged in practices where governance intertwined with ecological management.

    • Agriculture and industry were energy-intensive systems reliant on fossil fuels; emphasized capitalistic and communist efforts in energy acquisition and management.

  • Character of Beringian Ecosystems:

    • Beringia does not support agriculture easily due to harsh conditions; economic structures relied on walrus as a source of biological energy.

Scholarly Perspectives

  • Influential Histories:

    • Studies by various scholars emphasized energy history and environmental management, such as Richard White and Dipesh Chakrabarty.

    • The historical importance placed on energy not derived from fossil fuels expands discussions regarding ecological reliance.

Walrus as a Resource

  • Walrus as Source of Energy:

    • Feeding habits result in a concentration of energy (roughly 30% fat content).

    • Contextualized in light of economic dimensions: both U.S. capitalism and Soviet communism viewed walrus as means to fulfill their energy demands.

  • Cultural Narratives:

    • Walrus hunting practices among Indigenous peoples marked a combination of necessity and reverence, failing as commercial hunts intensified.

Conservation and Legislative Responses

  • U.S. Legislation:

    • Federal initiatives in both Alaska and Chukotka sought to protect Indigenous life while enabling walrus conservation.

    • The Game Act of 1902 aimed to create a balance but led to tensions about hunting limits and commercial interests.

  • Soviet Union's Approach:

    • Initially affirmative toward walrus use but increasingly cautious by the late 1930s due to declining walrus populations.

    • The establishment of stricter regulations followed by successful harvest management policies post-Stalin.

The Evolution of Environmental Policies

  • Comparative Analysis of U.S. and Soviet Policies:

    • Overlapping conservationist initiatives prompted by shared needs for walrus management established frameworks of cooperation in ecological protectiveness.

  • Resulting Policies:

    • By 1972, the Agreement on Cooperation concerning walrus conservation emerged, emphasizing Indigenous hunting traditions and regulating commercial harvest limits.

Ecological Consequences of Overexploitation

  • Reports show distinct declines in walrus populations from the late 20th century due to overexploitation and climate effects.

  • The relationship between humans and the walrus exemplifies dependencies ingrained through historical contexts and modern ecological challenges.