Truman Booklet Notes

Foreign Policy

Timeline for Truman

1945:

Feb- Yalta conference: agreed Germany & Berlin would be divided

April 12th- Death of Roosevelt “He has broken every one of the promises made at Yalta”

May- US protest the movement of Tito’s Yugoslavian troops to Trieste

June- US recognises the new polish state

July 16th- Trinity test & detonation of first atomic weapon in New Mexico

July 17th- Potsdam conference: at& reparations decided. One economic area

August 4th- Stalin intervenes in Chinese civil war

August 6th & 9th- Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

1946:

Feb 22nd-Kennan’s Long Telegram

March 5th- Iron curtain speech

1947:

Feb-Britain intends to withdraw troops from Greece: Truman pays for the British troops to remain

March 12th-Truman doctrine speech

June 5th- Marshall Plan

1948:

June-Berlin blockade → airlift

1949:

April- Establishment of NATO

May 23rd- Creation of West Germany

August- First soviet nuclear test

October- China falls to communism

1950:

June 25th- Korean war breaks out

Why did the cold war begin

Pre-war causes

• October revolution of 1917: Lenin’s one party state, a command economy and closed society were at odds with US belief in multi-party politics, limited government intervention and individual freedoms. Communists were seen as extremists

• The first red scare (1920s): The American Communist party were founded in the US 1919. Its members were seen as agents of Bolshevik Russia. In 1920, 6000 communists were arrested & imprisoned, with many later being deported

• The Nazi- Soviet pact: Americans saw this as an alliance between two dictatorships. They ignored how Stalin had been driven into Nazi arms by the reluctance of western powers to form an alliance

Tensions within wartime alliance

• Anglo- American invasion postponed: The German invasion of the USSR in 1941 transformed US/USSR relations as a period of unprecedented cooperation began. Despite being wartime allies, the mistrust remained. Stalin was suspicious that the US promise of an invasion of France was repeatedly delayed (until D Day 1944)

• Soviet Espionage: During WW2, there were 349 agents working for the USSR within the US, showing Stalin’s mistrust of the US

• American Espionage: The US’ Venona project was designed to intercept and decipher coded messages passed between soviet intelligence agencies. In total, 2,200 messages were decoded enabling the US to track down soviet spies.

Collapse of wartime alliance and aftermath of WW2

• The Polish Dispute: Stalin’s overriding concern was the security of the USSR. He wanted to guarantee safety by restoring its 1914 boundaries and creating a belt of friendly states (who shared the same political and economic ideas) on its western perimeter. In 1939, the Polish Government fled to Britain and was supported in exile by the wartime alliance. In 1944, Stalin set up a pro- Soviet government, the Lublin Committee. At Yalta, Roosevelt reported that Stalin had promised to hold free elections in a post-war Poland, signing the Declaration of Liberated Europe as proof of his trustworthiness. However, this was not strictly true as Stalin’s promise referred to his commitment in signing the DOLE as a statement of intent, not as a legally binding document. Free elections weren’t held and full communist control was imposed in 1947.

• The Manhattan Project: Truman announced to Stalin at Potsdam an atomic bomb had been successfully detonated. Stalin pretended to be unconcerned but was deeply worried and authorised an accelerated weapons development programme in the USSR

• The Potsdam Conference: Each side read different meanings into the agreements reached. Germany was divided into 4 zones of occupation. Each occupying power was to take reparations from its own zone. The USSR was to be given additional reparations from the other zones. Goods were to move freely between all zones, being treated as a single economic area. However the soviets treated their zone as a separate economic entity and removed German factories from the zone, rebuilding them in the USSR. The soviets also complained they were receiving insufficient reparations from the other zones so refused to allow movement of goods from their zone

• Personalities of Stalin and Truman: Truman didn’t get on with Stalin as well as Roosevelt had appeared to. Truman was frustrated at Stalin’s attitude. He believed the news of the US atomic bomb would make Stalin more amenable in Potsdam negotiations. However, the soviets refused to be intimidated into making concessions

Spread of Communism

• Eastern Europe: The war led to a huge increase in Soviet power. Soviet troops were in control of vast sections of Eastern Europe and the western allies had practically no power to stop the implementation of communist governments

• China: The Chinese civil war broke out in the 1920s between the communists (CCP) and the nationalists (KMT). in the 1930s, the two sides united in their attempts to drive out the Japanese from China, but never truly cooperated. in 1945, the war resumed. in 1945, the US wanted to see a unified China with strong relations with the US & limited influence by the communist party.

• The Middle East: under wartime agreements, Soviet troops had been stationed in Iran to guard Persian oil fields. The US feared the soviets had remained past March 1st ‘46, the agreed withdrawal date in an attempt to create a sphere of influence similar to its western boarders.

• Western Europe: 1945, in Yugoslavia, General Tito’s communists were dominant. by may, they had reached Trieste, Italy, a city which had historically disputed re ownership between Yugoslavia and Italy. The US protested and Tito withdrew

Post war perceptions of USSR

• The Long Telegram: George Kennan, an official in the US embassy in Moscow sent a telegram to the US state dept, offering a historical explanation for soviet foreign policy, suggesting they were inspired by Marxian theory. The idea that the USSR were expansionist and aggressive hugely appealed to Truman, prompting a tougher policy against the USSR

• Iron Curtain Speech: Churchill gave a speech in Fulton Missouri in 1946 claiming an iron curtain had descended across Europe. This helped harden public opinion in the US. 1946, only 35% of Americans believed the soviets could be trusted. a year earlier it had been 55%.

New policies directed at USSR

• Containment: Truman adopts his, get tough policy with the USSR, later evolving to containment. The secretary of state & commerce were both fired for disagreeing with the policy.

• The Baruch Plan: June 1946, the plan was presented to the UN, laying down proposals for the control of atomic weapons through inspections in member states. This caused tension as the USSR refused to submit to inspection until US weapons were destroyed and the US refused to destroy the stockpiles until the USSR had been inspected.

• USSR Loan policy: The US attached more stringent conditions to their loans to the USSR e.g. they gad to drop trade barriers in eastern Europe , but the soviets were uninterested in a loan on such terms. Dollar Diplomacy

• Use of the UN: March 1946, USSR troops were only 40 miles from Tehran, and hadn’t observed the March 1st withdrawal deadline. The US appealed to the UN to tell Stalin to withdraw. Stalin is angered that the US went to the UN but does withdraw

Why did Americans fight in the Korean war

Background to the Korean war

• 1910-1945 Korea was a Japanese colony

• 1945, after the surrender of Japan, Korea was temporarily partitioned into North and South Korea along the 38th parallel

• The USSR took responsibility for the surrender of Japanese troops in the North and the US did the same in the south

• 1948, in the absence of unification agreement between the US and the USSR, two states emerged

• In the North, the democratic peoples republic of Korea, led by communist Kim Il Sung

• In the south, elections were held, with Syngham Rhee elected leader of the republic of Korea

• Both sides troops left in 1949

• Both leaders intended to unify Korea by force, with 100,000 dying in the 5 years after WW2

New communist threats

• 1949 in China, Mao Zedong’s communist forces defeated the nationalist forces ending the Chinese civil war and turning China communist and exposing Asia to communism

• 1949 the soviets tested their first atomic bomb, ahead of predicted US schedule, leading to fear of soviet nuclear superiority. The arms race ensued.

Events of the Korean war

25th of June 1950, 90,000 North Koreans attacked south Korea, intending to unite Korean under communist leadership

27th of June, the US sponsored a UN resolution in the UN security council meeting calling for military action against North Korea. This was passed in the absence of the USSR

30th June, Truman ordered American troops stationed in Japan into Korea. Initially the war went badly for the US and the southern capital, Seoul was captured

September, US General Douglas MacArthur turned the war around with an amphibious assault on Inchon, forcing a north Korean retreat

Here, Truman’s aims changed from containing communism to above the 38th parallel to taking North Korea. Rollback

The Chinese warned that if American troops crossed into North Korea, China would enter the war. MacArthur had said this wouldn’t happen but his intelligence was wrong, and with China’s entry, the UN, US and south Korean troops were pushed back under the 38th parallel. The US suffered heavy losses, with 11,000 casualties in just two days in December

Jan 1951, Seoul was recaptured

Truman’s aims shifted once again to a limited war, to preserve the south’s independence. MacArthur who desired total war was dismissed, reducing truman’s at home popularity

February, Lieutenant General Matthew Ridgeway led operation killer, with operation ripper following in march

April the 38th parallel was reached

June, China suggested an armistice. the negotiations dragged for two years. Truman prolonged the war, insisting Chinese prisoners of war not be returned to China

July 1953 with Eisenhower in power, Armistice was agreed and pre-war status quo restored

Reasons why Truman went to war in Korea

• In April 1950, a national security council planning paper (NSC 68) warned Truman the soviets were intent on dominating all of Europe and Asia. The document recommended the US significantly increase its military power to retain advantage over the USSR. Truman did nothing about this proposal until North Korea invaded the south.

• The fall of Czechoslovakia, the berlin blockade and the north Korean attack convinced Truman the soviets were attempting to extend communist power. The US wrongly believed the USSR directed the north to invade the south

• Communism was becoming more powerful- China fell and the USSR exploded its first atomic bomb (1949)

• South Korea was an anti-communist state the US had helped create, obliging Truman to intervene

• Truman was worried about the safety of Japan, close to Korea and a part of the American defence perimeter

• Truman believed this was a test of the UN by north Korea, and failure to support the UN could encourage aggression & WW3

• Britain and France were supportive of US action as communist activity in SEA threatened their nearby colonies

• The US dominated the UN so it was easy to get support for the war against North Korea

• Cold war anxieties were growing at home- Klaus Fuchs, McCarthy and Alger Hiss

• The GOP were attacking Truman over the loss of China and he wanted to avoid repeating this with North Korea to improve election chances 1950.

Success or Failure?

Consequences

1. US involvement necessitated a huge increase in US defence production, not just to fund involvement but to pay for future anti communist wars In 1950 Truman asked Congress for $260 billion to fund the hydrogen bomb. In 1950 military spending was £13.1 billion but for the rest of the 50s it was never less than $40 billion a year

2. NATO was strengthened fearing western Europe would be targeted. Greece & Türkiye joined 1951 and America placed military bases in Türkiye. West Germany was rearmed and in 1952 was recognised as a full sovereign state, occupation over.

3. In 1950 Truman sent a fleet to the Taiwan Straits to defend the island of Taiwan against communist invasion

4. Sovereignty was restored to Japan

5. The US increased financial aid to the French in Vietnam

How successful was Truman in waging the cold war

Truman Doctrine speech 12th March 1947:

• Truman stated it was the responsibility of the USA to prevent the spread of communism- a clear declaration of war. Kennan questioned if all states were worth supporting

• He also exaggerated the threat posed by communism to alarm the republican congress into voting for aid in Greece and Türkiye- congress voted to give $400 million, $250 of which went to Greece, the remainder to Türkiye

• The Truman doctrine was accompanied by an increase in military preparation- between June 1947 and June 1948 the USA increased the stock of its atomic bombs from 13 to 50

The National security act 1947

• designed to improve the USA’s war making capacity by merging the war and navy departments into a new enlarged defence department

• The act also established the CIA who’s function was to gather intelligence of actual or potential enemies - the CIA engaged in spying and secret operations abroad and was an important instrument pf containment

• The act also created the national security council which reported to the president directly. It gradually assumed an important role in developing policy towards the USSR

Marshall plan 5th June 1947

• George Marshall, secretary of state announced the programme of economic assistance for western Europe, who the US saw as in an economic crisis (this was not entirely the case)

• The purpose was containment, proposing large grants which countries would use to purchase food, raw materials and industrial machinery (from the US to stimulate the economy)

• The soviets were invited though not truly wanted- Stalin perceived it as a challenge to his control over eastern Europe

• Feb 1948, the pro western Czech foreign minister was murdered after expressing interest

• Between 1948 and 1952, Marshall spending came to $13 billion

Berlin Blockade

• Blocked access to the western zones

• American and British planes flew more than 200,000 planes into Berlin in 320 days

• Led to the establishment of NATO

Creation of west German state

• May 1949 a constitution was drawn up for a new west German state, a combination of the three zones

• The east German state was set up in response

NATO 1949

• military alliance of 12 states

• collective security

• military divide across Europe

• USSR responded with Warsaw in 1955

• First treaty with a European state since the revolution

Civil rights

What was the position of US African Americans by 1945

The north

Political position:

• Better than in the south but still in equal

• Everyone can vote but less black elected officials- only two African Americans in congress

Social position

• De facto segregation

• Black ghettoes in norther cities

• Inferior education

Economic position

• some opportunities e.g. Thurgood Marshall was an African American lawyer

• Well paid jobs in car industries or meat packing

• Most had low paid low skilled jobs

Legal position

• Discriminated against in law courts and by police e.g. harsher sentences for the same crime

South

Political position:

• Not everyone can vote, white registrars made it difficult

• only 12% of southern black populations registered to vote in 1947

• Poll tax, $16.50 in 1945

• Ignored supreme court rulings

• only representation was racist democrats

Social position:

• Inferiority maintained through the law and segregation, Jim Crow laws

• fearful of activism due to response

• growing black middle class due to GI bill entitling to free college education

Economic status:

• poor status, lower pay often worst jobs due to lack of education

Legal position:

• Not protected by law

• de jure segregation

• Judges, jurors and police were all white

• African Americans rarely got justice

What helped improve status and opportunities for African Americans in the first half of the 20th centaury

The Great migration:

• between 1910 - 1970 6 million blacks migrated from the rural south to northern cities for greater economic opportunities

• in 1919 89% of blacks lived in the south, by 1970 it was 53%

• urbanisation led to an increase in black consciousness and a greater sense of community

WW1:

• Black soldiers in France witnessed a les racist society

• 1919 race riots took place in 25 American cities, sparked by white resentment at black competition for jobs and housing following demobilisation

Harlem renaissance:

• Black culture flourished

• Black unity increased

• belief in self-help

NAACP:

• set up 1909 worked with other organisations

• membership grew steadily from 1915

• Used legal system to get rulings against discrimination

• from 1934 Charles Houston, a black professor directed legal campaigns with Thurgood Marshall as is star lawyer

• Won respect from moderates

Philip Randolph

• Established the first all-black trade union

• Realised mass non-violent action could force the federal gov into helping blacks

• unionisation helped make blacks more assertive and campaign for civil rights

The Great depression and the new deal

• Blacks got more help than ever before e.g. 1 million jobs, 50,000 public housing units and training for 500,000 blacks

• some blacks started voting democrat

More migration from southern farms:

• 4 million migrated from the south in the 1940s

• Chicago’s population doubled 1940-50

• Blacks worked in defence industries in WW2

• Large numbers of African Americans in towns were harder to intimidate than small numbers in rural areas

World War II

• more bargaining powers for black workers, who staged sit ins and economic boycotts

• threatened strikes in Washington so Roosevelt created the FEPC to promote equality in the defence industry which employed 2 million blacks

More activism

• 1942 sit ins staged by CORE in Chicago restaurants

• CORE set up in 1942 by James Farmer , influenced by Ghandi’s non violent protests

Hitler’s racism:

• US believed in fighting fascism but became aware Hitler’s racism wasn’t so different from the US

• Direct action was increasing inspired by the fight against fascism abroad

GI Bill of rights:

• Gave all demobilised soldiers a college grant so black southerners attended in record numbers

• Better economic opportunities to enact change

How and with what results did African Americans campaign for their rights

1942- during the 1940s many African Americans moved to the northern cities. the proximity of blacks in the cities meant it was easier to organise and set up groups e.g. CORE

1944- Smith V Allright, a voting rights case ruling African Americans could vote in primaries

1945- Adam Clayton Powell was a black member of the house of representatives, representing Harlem 1945-51

1946- Gubernatorial elections, for state governor in Georgia. Activists were very effective in Atlanta and Savannah. One fifth of the adult black population voted.

1946- Supreme court ruling Morgan V Virginia, ruling segregation on interstate buses was illegal

1947- NAACP picketed stores in new Orleans where black women weren’t allowed to try on hats

1947- Journey of reconciliation, organised by CORE testing the 1946 supreme court ruling

1947- Mississippi voters league established, 5000 joined the first year

1948- Shelley V Kramer ruled estate agents couldn’t refuse to show and sell houses to blacks

1950- Henderson V US ruled segregation in railroad dining cars was illegal ; McLaurin V Oklahoma state allowed McLaurin to enter the university of Oklahoma . Sweatt V Painter ruled the provision of separate but equal law school for black students was not equal to Texas Law school

How successful was president Truman in helping to develop African American civil rights in his tenure

1945- Truman spoke out against the treatment of returning black service men

June 1946- Addressed the NAACP at the Lincoln memorial

Dec 1946- Truman signed an executive order announcing the creation of a presidential commission, which would investigate the ways in which the rights of African Americans were being violated

Dec 1947- the aforementioned commission issued its report, to secure these rights, over a million copies were printed and it was widely discussed by the media and highlighted problems like:

• How racism undermined democracy and principles of freedom and equality

• Economic impact e.g. two schools

• damaged US international reputation

• Called for anti-lynching legislation, fair reemployment laws, federal action to ensure blacks could vote in all elections and actions taken to prevent police brutality- congress blocked these reforms

Jan 1948- State of union address in which he argued racial discrimination was contrary to American ideals about democracy

Feb 1948- Truman made a radical civil rights speech calling for congress to support measures to protect blacks against lynching, right to vote and have a permanent and better funded FEPC

1948- Issued executive orders to end racial discrimination against African Americans in the armed forces and federal bureaucracy

1948- Elected for 2nd term despite civil rights plank and Dixiecrats splitting with Strom Thurmond

Dec 1951- issued an executive order to establish the committee on government contract compliance putting pressure on companies with federal contracts to end discrimination

in what ways did federal, state and local governments respond to the discrimination faced by African Americans

Historic attitudes:

• Southern democrats assumed if African Americans could vote they’d vote republican due to the republican’s role in emancipation so southerners prevented blacks from voting

• By the 1870s the south was a one party state

• Historically anti-civil rights and pro segregation

• By the 1940s civil rights was causing huge divide

• continuing mass migration meant democrats could no longer ignore black votes

Why did some states argue with the federal government:

• The constitution gave federal government the ability to decide issues of foreign policy and national taxation

• States had considerable power in their own rights

• Many southerners believed their state had the right to retain as much power as possible

• The issue of states rights was debated frequently in the discourse of civil rights

• By 1952, only 5 states retained poll tax

• by 1952 11 states had introduced fair employment laws

Domestic policy

Why and with what results did America experience the second red scare

Who or what was responsible

HUAC

• set up during the 1930s great depression to investigate prominent right wing Americans

• 1945, congressman John Rankin suggested it should be made permeant and have its powers extended

• 1947 Republicans dominated congress & HUAC

• The Hollywood 10- supposedly in a plot to overthrow the government and were given a year in prison

Truman

• Truman stirred up feelings of fear about the soviets to gain support for the Truman Doctrine

• Executive Order 9835, ordering an investigation into the loyalty of federal government employees- pre-empting republican demands

• Did nothing to stop FBI Chief Edgar J. Hoover in his investigations of which there were 3 million, leading to several thousand resignations and over 1000 dismissals

Soviet Union and espionage

• 1949 soviets exploded the first atomic bomb & China fell

• Feb 1950, Klaus Fuchs was arrested for betraying the secrets of atomic weaponry to the soviets

• Alger Hiss, a state dept official, was arrested for espionage

• Ethel and Julius Rosenburg were arrested for spying and executed

Republican pressures

• The republicans needed to find ways of attacking their political rivals so claimed Truman was too soft on communism and not a true cold warrior

McCarthy

• see Eisenhower notes

Did Truman think the red scare was really necessary

• referred to as “a load of baloney”

• 1952 Truman attempted to halt some of the more extreme acts against suspected communists- in 1950, congressed passed the McCarran Act, an internal security act saying that all members of communist affiliated groups had to register with federal gov or face fines or prison. In 1952 the act was strengthened, passports had to be surrendered and suspected subversives could be deported. Truman had tried to veto the act- congress overrode.

• Truman felt pressurised into supporting the red scare otherwise his administration would be attacked for being too soft

• He privately referred to the FBI and Hoover as the gestapo

How did McCarthy get away with it and impact

• Fear of communist expansion- China and North Korean attack 1950

• Couldn’t stand up to him for fear of being investigated

• Influenced the Truman doctrine and fighting in Korea

• Ensured democratic defeat in 1952 calling them “commie-crats”

• Stifled freedom of expression and censored reading

• Jobs lost, several thousand jailed and over 150 deported

• Limited negotiations with USSR after Stalin’s death 1953

How well did Truman handle other domestic problems

Employment:

• 12 million soldiers returned from the US 1945

• Truman presented congress with a bill that committed the government to providing full employment for them

• However, when the Employment act 1946 was passed the federal government could only “use all practical means” to foster “maximum employment”

• There was some short term unemployment

• Truman demobilised 9 million and kept 3 million in the army- a further 1.5 million demobilised in 1946

• Manufacturing industries boomed and jobs were created as consumer enthusiasm for spending grew

• Servicemen benefitted from Roosevelt’s GI bill of rights 1944 giving 52 weeks of unemployment pay, and loans for education, housing (90% mortgages) farms or business. 1945-1955 $20 billion was given to 7.8 million veterans

• 1945-60 baby boom created new market for housing, goods and services

• Unemployment levels never rose above 5%

Inflation:

• rose to 25% during 1945-6 due to the withdrawal of wartime price controls, budget deficits and initial shortage of consumer goods

• Truman tried to reduce inflation using Roosevelt’s Office of Price Administration which had controlled prices during the war

• Conservative democrats and republicans weakened the OPA because they wanted to restore free market prices

• Employers wanted to raise prices but keep wages down

• High inflation led to democrat defeat in the congressional midterm elections 1946

Trade unions:

• Trade unions were traditionally supporters of the democrats

• From late 1945-6 unions went on strike in the steel, coal, auto and railroad industries to demand higher wages

• Truman’s hard-line with the unions damaged his support base

• The battles with the unions meant the American public saw Truman as an unimpressive leader in 1946

• Truman tried to end the strikes by recommending compulsory mediation and arbitration. He even took the united mine workers to court 1946 and won

• The Taft Hartley act curtailed union powers in response to the 4985 strikes in 1946 with 4.6 million workers involved and the loss of 116 million working days

• Truman vetoed the bill, but congress overrode his veto

• 1952 steel workers went on strike for a wage increase

• Steel was vital for the munitions in Korea so Truman seized control of the steel mills in an executive order

• Truman was accused of being like Hitler, the Washington post said it was the most high handed act of any president

• The supreme court ruled Truman had overstepped his presidential powers

Congress

• Truman had a democrat majority for most of his presidency besides 1946-8 but had limited support from congress

• Poor relations was a legacy of Roosevelt’s increase of presidential power

• The democrats were split between the conservatives disagreeing with civil rights and unions, and the liberal democrats who wanted greater reforming legislation

• Congress rejected most of Truman’s legislative proposals

• He vetoed 250 bills passed by congress- congress overrode 12 of these

Fair Deal-housing

• Post war housing shortage was the worst in American history

• Truman constantly asked congress to do something about housing

• 1949 the Housing act was reluctantly passed agreeing 810,000 subsidised houses should be built for low-income Americans, by 1952 only 156,000 had been built

Health and education

• Truman proposed a national health care scheme based on a tax of 4% on the first $6300 of a persons income

• The proposal was attacked by congress and the American medical profession as socialised medicine

• Congress didn’t want to make educational changes as it was a state matter

• 1946 National School Lunch Act enabling poorer children to eat a free, or low cost lunch

Fair deal and other domestic policies

• 1949, 1 million additional Americans received social security

• minimum wage 40-75 cents

• Farmers got help with soil conservation, flood control etc.

Why did Truman win the 1948 presidential election

Truman’s successes:

• Truman embarked on a barnstorming 33-day, 30,000 mile tour of the nation, defending his record and attacking the republicans as a do nothing congress

• Truman loved addressing people and would introduce his wife and daughter

• Truman campaigned in Republican counties

• Many voters were benefitting from the booming economy

• Truman was an ex farmer and appealed to them

• Civil rights plank

• Commitment to containment

Republican failures

• Republicans didn’t pass social legislation

• Didn’t appeal to organised labour

• Dewey’s campaign was overconfident and uninspiring