The Colour of Beauty in Asia

Introduction

The phenomenon of colourism in Asia has been significantly highlighted by the rise in popularity of skin-whitening products over the past two decades. Many Asian women perceive skin colour and tone as crucial determinants of beauty, desirability, and social status. Consequently, various methods are employed to minimise sun exposure, including the usage of UV-blocking umbrellas, gloves, detachable sleeves, and large hats. A notable development in this regard is the introduction of the facetini, a fabric mask designed to cover the face and neck for outdoor swimmers, which gained popularity in China around 2012 and continues to enjoy national recognition. The cultural pressure to avoid dark skin tones has been passed down through generations. In many Asian cultures, lighter skin is associated with social power and privilege, often connoted as good, beautiful, and intelligent. In contrast, darker skin is linked with negative traits such as badness, ugliness, and dullness (Magdaraog, 2014).

Historical Beauty Standards

  • In the research conducted by Dixon and Telles in 2017, it was found that the majority of studies analysing skin colour in Asia leaned towards a historical viewpoint focusing on classism and aesthetics. The upper class in society typically consisted of educated individuals who spent their days indoors, resulting in paler skin. In contrast, lower-class individuals, primarily servants, worked outdoors, leading to darker skin. While it was socially acceptable for men to have darker skin due to their role as providers, women were often harshly judged; they were expected to maintain a fair complexion as a representation of beauty and virtue (Tharps, 2016, p. 117). A woman's light skin symbolised femininity, beauty, and purity (Hall, 2010; Rondilla & Spickhard, 2007).

  • Art has also played a pivotal role in establishing whiter skin as the beauty ideal. For instance, in 690 A.D., Empress Wu Zetian was depicted with pale skin to reflect her elite status as a royal figure. The unknown artist intentionally used a special white paint that would endure over time, contrasting with media such as rice paper or silk, which would fade (Pan, 2013).

Skin Colour Preference

  • In their book "Is Lighter Better? Skin-tone Discrimination among Asian Americans," Rondilla and Spickard share an anecdote demonstrating skin tone hierarchies within families. A Korean American woman recounts how her father referred to her as “Snow White,” while calling her sister “Dark Princess.” Although both girls were deemed “princesses,” this familial dynamic underscored a societal understanding that lighter skin was favoured.

  • A Chinese proverb, “一白遮百丑” (yi bai zhe bai chou), translates to “one white can cover up a hundred uglinesses,” signifying the power attributed to having white skin to overshadow flaws in personality or appearance. Consequently, a woman with dark skin is often perceived negatively, while her light-skinned counterpart is seen as more appealing. This cultural narrative impacts women’s experiences in romantic pursuits, as men tend to prefer lighter-skinned women associated with softness and femininity.

Beauty Expectations in Media and Culture

  • The character Mulan from Disney exemplifies these cultural standards, utilising light makeup in preparation for a matchmaking ceremony. The corresponding song, “I’ll Make a Man Out of You,” encapsulates cultural ideals, suggesting dark skin signifies masculinity, contrary to the attributes ascribed to women. Women with darker skin often face the stigma of being deemed less intelligent and trustworthy, derived from entrenched societal norms associating skin tone with moral character and attractiveness.

  • In many Asian societies, a preferred skin tone is characterised as "like a boiled egg—soft, white, and smooth on the surface" (Intage, 2001). Beyond mere aesthetics, the pursuit of this ideal is deeply rooted in cultural identity, with historical significance emphasising the necessity for women to achieve a flawless, white complexion. This pursuit can be traced back to ancient Korea, where a preference for white skin dates back to the Gojoseon Era (2333–108 BCE). Similarly, during the Edo period in Japan, women were expected to adhere to beauty standards favouring white faces, often achieved through the use of face powder (Ashikari, 2003).

  • In China, the pursuit of whiter skin led women to consume powdered pearls with the hope of achieving the desired complexion, exposing the lengths to which individuals will go to align with cultural standards of beauty (China Daily, 2006). Evelyn Nakano Glenn highlights the various treatments and cosmetics women have employed throughout history to attain a lighter appearance, focusing on the removal of imperfections (2009, pp. 166–167).

Cultural Capital and Skin Colour

  • Ronald E. Hall posits the need to transform critical race theory into critical skin theory, in recognition of how globalisation has reframed perceptions of beauty and social hierarchy, particularly in relation to lighter skin (Hall, 2018). As East Asian nations such as China, Korea, and Japan experience economic growth, their beauty industries emerge as significant influences on global beauty standards, effectively propagating the belief that lighter skin confers greater social capital.

  • According to Hunter (2005, p. 37), female beauty functions as currency, with lighter skin possibly facilitating access to better employment opportunities, educational resources, and advantageous marital prospects. Hence, women actively seek skin-whitening products to elevate their social status and even gain control over their life circumstances through enhanced attractiveness (Wolf, 2002, p. 12). Conversely, the inability to conform to these beauty standards often correlates with diminished social value, particularly for women with darker skin shades.

Implicit Skin Colour Bias

  • While East Asian culture inherently favours lighter skin tones, studies indicate women actively participate in perpetuating these biases. One research methodology used involves the Skin Tone Implicit Association Test (IAT), which evaluates automatic associations between skin colours (light versus dark) and terms such as good and evil. A comprehensive study by Greenwald, Banaji, and Nosek included 622,824 participants between 2015 and 2018 and revealed pronounced skin bias among East Asian individuals compared to other regions (Figure 14.1).

  • When analysing gender-specific results, it was found that bias levels remained consistent in East Asia between men and women (Figure 14.2). Notably, younger participants exhibited lower levels of bias than older individuals, and more religious participants also showed lower bias.

  • To further examine skin colour bias in Asia, Chen and Francis-Tan studied bias levels across various Asian economies, ranking countries from least to most biased: Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Korea, Mainland China, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Japan (Table 14.1).

Individual and Cultural Perspectives on Skin Colour

  • Colourism is evidently present in Asia, particularly among East Asian women. However, understanding the nuances that influence attitudes toward different skin tones is challenging. A 2019 experiment conducted in Singapore evaluated participants' perceptions of candidates suitable for entry-level positions based on skin colour, evidencing the profound impact of colourism on employment opportunities.

  • The cultural dichotomy is stark between East Asian beliefs and Euro-American views on skin colour. In Asian contexts, lighter skin conveys cultivation and refinement, whereas tan skin is seen as indicative of leisure and financial security in Euro-American circles. For many Asian women, being labelled as “sexy” due to a tan contradicts their cultural aspirations towards marriage and the elevation of familial social status (Hunter, 2002).

  • Women often avoid outdoor activities that could lead to tanning, opting for indoor exercises or shaded environments to minimise sun exposure. Educational and generational influences contribute to these cultural practices, which are deeply rooted in the quest to preserve an idealised skin tone.

Beauty Products and Market Trends

  • The burgeoning demand for skin-whitening products and services reflects the deep-seated societal beliefs regarding the desirability of fair skin. The Asian beauty market, currently the largest in the world, continues to expand as women seek methods to improve skin tone and texture. The motivations behind skin-lightening practices differ notably from those seen in Black communities, as Asian women primarily view lighter skin as a means to improve overall life status rather than as a form of self-denigration resulting from colonial ideologies (Hall, 2013, p. 3).

  • The media reinforces these ideals, portraying skin lightness as a global beauty standard observed across various cultural contexts, including Bollywood and Korean dramas (Glenn, 2009; Jha & Adelman, 2009). The skin-lightening phenomenon is not merely cosmetic; it represents a substantial economic market worth millions, driven by media portrayal and the underlying belief that beauty enhances self-esteem and social mobility.

  • Notably, the marketing strategies employed for skin-lightening products often misuse terminology associated with safety and health, promoting harmful practices despite documented risks, including skin damage and severe health concerns stemming from toxic ingredients such as mercury (CNN, 2002). Yet, the allure of achieving perceived beauty persists, leading many to disregard potential dangers associated with these products.

Methods to Maintain Fair Skin

Asian women are vigilant about their skincare regimens and employ various strategies to protect their skin and maintain a lighter skin tone. This includes the use of anti-UV umbrellas, clothing, gloves, and hats. A fascinating cultural trend in China is the use of the “facekini,” a mask that protects the face and neck from sun exposure, which gained media attention in 2012.

Women's diets in Asia often reflect the cultural high value placed on maintaining a fair complexion, with consuming milk, rice water, lemon water, and Chinese yams believed to contribute to skin lightness. At the same time, dark-coloured foods such as soy sauce, soda, and chocolate are avoided due to their association with darkening the skin tone. Salons offering advanced laser treatments are also available, catering to the demand for lighter skin, albeit at a high financial cost, leading many to favour more accessible cosmetic products.

Marketing Whitening Products

The marketing of whitening products is sophisticated, relying heavily on celebrity endorsements and culturally resonant slogans. Effective advertising campaigns not only tout claims of “pure white” but also address a variety of skin concerns, assuring consumers that their insecurities can be ameliorated through product use. With technological advancements, the internet has become a powerful tool for disseminating information about skin lightening and for providing forums where individuals can seek advice and share experiences related to beauty regimens.

Conclusion

The exponential increase in the use of skin-whitening products and practices persists, reflecting a deeply ingrained societal mindset that equates beauty with social identity. Confronting and educating individuals about the stigma associated with darker skin tones remains paramount to dismantling societal pressures that dictate beauty norms in Asia. The dichotomy of empowerment and disempowerment through beauty standards illustrates a complex reality where women are both striving for individual agency while also succumbing to cultural expectations. Awareness of these biases within educational and professional environments is crucial to nurturing a healthier understanding of self-worth that transcends superficial aesthetics.