Class Notes on Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian

Nerva and Trajan

  • Nerva (reigned 96-98 AD):

    • Elderly Senator and friend of Nero.
    • Not popular among the Praetorian Guards.
    • Adopted Trajan, a popular military leader, as successor to appease the guard.

  • Trajan (reigned 98-117 AD):

    • Competent military leader and politician, first emperor to be born in Spain.
    • Known for extensive public works, including:
    • The forum
    • Expansion of Circus Maximus
    • Public bathhouse
    • His marriage to Pompeia Plotina, who secured Hadrian's succession.
    • Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan:
    • annexation of:
      • Dacia (Romania)
      • Armenia
      • Mesopotamia
      • Arabia (Nabatean Jordan)
    • Briefly captured parts of the Parthian Empire (Iraq), establishing it as a client state.
    • Faced the “diaspora revolt” from Jews settled in regions of Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrene, leading to unrest in Mesopotamia and Iraq.

Extent of Roman Empire under Trajan

  • Map highlights reached territories:
    • Dacia, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Arabia.
    • The empire extended through much of Europe, parts of Asia, and northern Africa.

Decebalus, King of Dacia

  • Attacked Romans in 101; defeated in 102 and forced to submit.
  • Re-attacked in 105, leading to Dacia being fully integrated as a Roman province.
  • Decebalus’ suicide is commemorated on Trajan’s Column and symbolized in rock carvings at the Iron Gates.

Pompeia Plotina

  • Trajan’s wife (98-117), known for her virtuous image; associated with goddesses Minerva and Vesta.
  • Despite limited literature about her, she exerted considerable influence:
    • Inscription records her communication with Hadrian regarding appointments in Athens.
  • She was deified posthumously, and a basilica was built in her honor by Hadrian in Nîmes, France.

Hadrian

  • Reigned (117-138 AD):
    • Born in Spain, became Governor of Syria.
    • Disfavored senatorial life; preferred isolation in his villa at Tivoli and extensive travel.
    • Focused on creating defensive borders rather than expansion of the empire.
    • Promoted a diverse Senate by favoring men from across the Empire, ensuring greater political stability.

Hadrian’s Philhellenism

  • First emperor depicted with a beard, representing Greek influence.
  • Interest in Greek culture linked to the Second Sophistic Movement and Stoic philosophy.
  • Engaged in significant public works in Athens (e.g., Temple of Olympian Zeus).
  • Positioned himself as a modern-day Theseus through various inscriptions emphasizing Athenian heritage.

Second Sophistic

  • Literary movement (1st-2nd century AD) focused on Greek rhetoric and Attic prose.
  • Offered a platform for the elite disenfranchised class to express cultural identity and power dynamics against Romans.
  • Emphasis on reviving and mastering ancient Greek styles, showcasing their continued cultural significance.
  • Notable figures identified by Philostratus include Lucian and Plutarch.

Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli

  • An expansive imperial palace-complex serving as a private retreat and official residence.
  • Featured around 30 monumental buildings and extensive gardens that exceeded Pompeii in size.
  • Noteworthy elements include various architectural pavilions named after famous locations in the Empire, emphasizing the cultural pride.

A Short History of Concrete

  • Composition: aggregate (sand, gravel) mixed with water and cement that hardens over time.
  • Roman innovation: introduced volcanic ash (pozzolana) making it more durable than modern concrete.
  • Architectural significance led to greater design freedom (arches, vaults, domes).
  • Notable examples: Colosseum, Pantheon, and Pont du Gard.

The Pantheon

  • Temple built by Hadrian (126 AD), previously commissioned by Marcus Agrippa.
  • Features the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome with an oculus.
  • Interior decoration from the 16th century; well-preserved due to conversion into a church in 609 AD.
  • Dome's design lightened with layers of progressively less dense material.

Hadrian’s Wall

  • Constructed as a defensive barrier in 122 AD to separate Roman civilization from barbarian tribes.
  • Served as a significant propaganda tool reflecting Roman strength.
  • Antonine Pius later built a second wall but it was not sustained; Hadrian’s Wall remained the primary defense.

Antinous

  • Born in Bithynia, Hadrian’s young lover.
  • Died during travels in Egypt, suspected drowning incident, leading to immediate deification.
  • A city was founded in his honor on the site of his death, showcasing Hadrian’s influence and devotion to Antinous.