Cambridge (CIE) AS Environmental Management Notes

Classifying Countries

The World Bank classifies countries into three main categories based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. This classification considers various aspects of development: economic, social, cultural, and technological.

  1. Low-Income Countries (LICs): These have a GNI per capita of US$1,086 or less. Examples include Mozambique, Bangladesh, Haiti, and Afghanistan. LICs often struggle with economic challenges, including extreme poverty, lower education levels, and poorer living standards. Other LIC examples are Zambia, Myanmar, Chad, and Sierra Leone.

  2. Middle-Income Countries (MICs): These countries have a GNI per capita between US$1,086 and US$13,205. Such countries include Mexico, the Philippines, Brazil, and Indonesia.

  3. High-Income Countries (HICs): Countries falling under this category have a GNI per capita exceeding US$13,205, such as Sweden, Australia, Canada, and Singapore. HICs benefit from stronger economies that foster higher education levels, superior living standards, and low incidence of extreme poverty. Other examples of HICs include Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Qatar.

Several factors affect a country’s classification: climate, resource availability, frequency of natural disasters, and social aspects, including political stability, cultural diversity, and social equality.

Continents & Oceans

The Earth consists of seven recognized continents and five recognized oceans.

Continents
  1. North America
  2. South America
  3. Europe
  4. Asia
  5. Africa
  6. Oceania
  7. Antarctica
Oceans
  1. Pacific Ocean
  2. Atlantic Ocean
  3. Indian Ocean
  4. Arctic Ocean
  5. Southern Ocean

Seas, smaller bodies of water than oceans, are partially enclosed by land. Examples are the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea, Irish Sea, Dead Sea, and Caribbean Sea.

Sustainability

Sustainability refers to managing natural resources efficiently, allowing for full natural regeneration and recovery of ecosystems affected by exploitation. Sustainable living involves using resources in a way that allows for their renewal and regeneration, preventing depletion and degradation. Sustainable practices include:

  • Reducing waste: e.g., recycling,
  • Conserving energy: e.g., cycling, using public transport,
  • Using renewable resources: e.g., solar, wind,
  • Protecting biodiversity: e.g., establishing nature reserves.
Sustainable Management

Sustainable management aims to meet present needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet their own. It promotes the fair distribution of resources, ensuring long-term economic stability and environmental preservation. Examples include sustainable forestry practices like selective logging and reforestation, enhancing resource provision while maintaining forest integrity.

Renewable vs. Non-renewable Resources

Renewable resources are those that can be replenished quickly, including solar energy and forests. In contrast, non-renewable resources, like fossil fuels, cannot be replenished in a human timeframe, leading to concerns about depletion and environmental impact during extraction.

Ecosystems

Ecosystems are dynamic systems comprising biotic components (living organisms) and abiotic components (physical environment). Communities of organisms rely on each other for food, shelter, and reproduction and interact through competition, predation, and symbiosis. Key aspects include:

  1. Abiotic factors: Non-living elements like temperature, light, humidity, and pH, affecting survival and reproduction.
  2. Biotic factors: Interactions among living organisms, influencing population dynamics and community structure.
Trophic Levels

Trophic levels describe positions in a food chain:

  1. Producers (plants, algae) - produce biomass from sunlight.
  2. Primary Consumers (herbivores) - eat producers.
  3. Secondary Consumers (carnivores) - eat primary consumers.
  4. Tertiary Consumers (top predators) - eat secondary consumers.

Efficient energy transfer is crucial, but only about 10% of energy from one trophic level is passed to the next; the rest is lost as heat.

The Carbon Cycle

Essential for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem health. This cyclic process includes:

  1. Photosynthesis - removes CO₂ from the atmosphere as plants convert light energy into chemical energy.
  2. Respiration - returns CO₂, as living organisms break down glucose for energy.
  3. Decomposition - recycles nutrients back into the soil, essential for new plant growth.
  4. Combustion - human activities release carbon back into the atmosphere, increasing greenhouse gas concentrations and impacting climate systems.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem functions, including climate regulation, food security, and medicine. Conservation involves protecting these ecosystems and the various species within them from threats such as invasive species, habitat destruction, and climate change. Effective conservation strategies include:

  • Establishing protected areas (nature reserves).
  • Promoting sustainable practices and responsible resource management.
  • Supporting legislation and international treaties.
  • Engaging in community awareness and involvement for conservation efforts.