The Church in the Middle Ages

Authority of the Church

In 800, the crowning of Charlemagne as Emperor was a move by the Church to influence both spiritual and political matters.
Pope Gelasius I recognized the potential for conflict between church and state.
He proposed an analogy: God created two "swords," one for religion and one for politics.
The Pope holds the religious sword, while the Emperor holds the political sword.
Gelasius suggested that if each stayed within their own realm, they could coexist peacefully.

The Structure of the Church

Power within the Church was based on status.
The structure was organized based on different ranks within the clergy.
Clergy: The body of officials who perform religious services.
The Pope, based in Rome, headed the Church.
All clergy were under his authority.
Bishops supervised priests, who were the lowest-ranking members of the clergy.
Bishops also settled disputes over Church teachings and practices.
Local priests served as the primary point of contact with the Church for most people.

Religion as a Unifying Force

Feudalism and the manor system caused divisions among people.
Shared beliefs in the Church's teachings bonded people together.
The daily lives of Medieval Christians were difficult.
They could all follow the same path to salvation through the Church.
Priests and clergy administered the sacraments.
Sacraments: Ceremonies through which God's grace is transmitted to people.
Example: The sacrament of baptism, through which people become part of the Christian community.

The Law of the Church

The Church created a system of justice to guide people’s conduct.
Canon Law: A body of laws that governed the religious practices of a Christian Church.
All medieval Christians, including kings and peasants, were subject to Canon Law.
Two of the harshest punishments were excommunication and interdict.

Excommunication and Interdict

Excommunication: Banishment from the Church.
A disobedient king's quarrel with the Pope could lead to excommunication, denying the king salvation.
Excommunication also freed the king’s vassals from their duties to him.
Interdict: Many sacraments and religious services could not be performed in the king’s lands.
Subjects believed that without sacraments, they might be doomed to hell.

The Church and the Holy Roman Empire

Pope Leo III’s crowning of Charlemagne in 800 set the stage for future conflicts between popes and emperors.
Otto I (Otto the Great) was the most effective ruler of medieval Germany.
He was crowned king in 936.
He built his power base by gaining the support of bishops and abbots.
Otto used his power to defeat German princes.
Following Charlemagne’s example, Otto invaded Italy on the Pope’s behalf.
In 962, the Pope crowned Otto as emperor.

The Holy Roman Empire and Lay Investiture

The German-Italian empire created by Otto was initially called the Roman Empire of the German Nation, later changed to the Holy Roman Empire.
It remained the strongest state in Europe until about 1100.
The Church resented kings controlling the clergy.
They particularly resented lay investiture: the ceremony where kings and nobles appointed church officials.

Conflict Over Lay Investiture

Church reformers believed that kings should not have the power to appoint church officials.
In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.
German King Henry IV called a meeting of bishops he had appointed.
With their approval, Henry ordered Gregory to step down from the papacy.
Gregory then excommunicated Henry.
German bishops and princes sided with the Pope.
Henry had to beg Gregory for forgiveness.
Gregory made Henry march across the Alps and sit in the snow for three days before ending the excommunication.

Concordat of Worms

Gregory and Henry's successors continued to fight over lay investiture.
In 1122, representatives of the Church and the emperor met in Worms, Germany.
They reached a compromise known as the Concordat of Worms.
The Church alone could appoint a bishop, but the emperor could veto the appointment.

Disorder in the Empire - Frederick I

Frederick I was the first to call his land the Holy Roman Empire.
It was actually a collection of feudal territories.
Frederick I had a forceful personality and strong military skills to maintain control.
Disorder returned whenever he left the country on conquest.
He attempted to invade Italy, like Otto before him.
His brutal tactics spurred Italian merchants and the popes to unite against him as the Lombard League.
In the Battle of Legnano (1176), the Lombard League defeated Frederick I.
This defeat undermined his authority.
After his death in 1190, the empire began to fall apart.

The Age of Faith

Historians have referred to the period in Western Europe between 500 and 1000 as a “dark age.”
Around the 900s, a new spirit emerged within the church, leading to a spiritual revival among the clergy.
The Church began restructuring itself and initiating significant building programs to create new places of worship.

Initial Changes and Reform

Reformers identified three main issues:
- Many village priests were married and had families, which was against Church rulings.
- Bishops sold positions in the Church, a practice called simony.
- Kings appointed church bishops through lay investiture.
Church reformers believed that the Church alone should appoint bishops.
Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII enforced Church laws against simony and the marriage of priests.
The Church was restructured to resemble a kingdom.

Growth of the Papal Kingdom

The Pope’s group of advisors was called the Papal Curia.
The Curia also acted as a court.
They developed canon law on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Diplomats for the Pope traveled throughout Europe dealing with bishops and kings.
The Popes established their authority throughout Europe.

New Religious Orders

In the early 1200s, wandering friars traveled from place to place, preaching and spreading the Church’s ideas.
Unlike monks, friars did not live apart from the world in monasteries.
Instead, they preached to the poor throughout Europe’s towns and cities.
Friars owned nothing and lived by begging.
Dominic, a Spanish priest, founded the Dominicans.
Dominic emphasized the importance of study.
Francis of Assisi, an Italian, founded the Franciscans.
Francis treated all creatures, including animals, as spiritual siblings.

Women in Religious Orders

Women played an important role in the spiritual revival.
They joined the Dominicans and Franciscans.
Clare and Francis of Assisi founded the Franciscan order for women, known as the Poor Clares.
Like friars, these women lived in poverty and worked to help the poor and sick.
Unlike the friars, however, women were not allowed to travel from place to place as preachers.

Cathedrals

Increased wealth from towns and trade helped fund the building of churches in several European countries.
A new style of architecture, known as Gothic, evolved throughout medieval Europe.
The term "Gothic" comes from a Germanic tribe named the Goths.
Gothic cathedrals thrust upward, as if reaching toward heaven.
Light streamed in through huge stained-glass windows.

The Crusades: Goals

The Pope wanted to reclaim Jerusalem and reunite Christianity.
Kings used the Crusades to send away troublesome knights.
Younger sons hoped to earn land or win glory by fighting.
Merchants joined the Crusades to try to gain wealth through trade.

The First and Second Crusades

The Pope promised Crusaders who died a place in heaven.
First Crusade: Three armies gathered at Constantinople in 1097.
Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099.
Captured lands along the coast were divided into four Crusader states.
Muslims retook Edessa in 1144; the Second Crusade failed to retake it.
In 1187, Saladin—Muslim leader—retook Jerusalem.

The Third Crusade

The Third Crusade was led by three powerful rulers:
- Richard the Lion-Hearted, King of England
- Phillip II of France abandoned the Crusade after arguing with Richard.
- Frederick I of Germany drowned during the journey.
In 1192, Richard and Saladin made peace after many battles.
Saladin kept Jerusalem but allowed Christian pilgrims to enter the city.

The Spanish Crusade

Early Spain was controlled by the Muslim Moors.
The Reconquista was the effort by Christian leaders to drive out the Muslims from Spain, lasting until 1492.
To solidify Christianity in Spain, the Inquisition was used.
The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic Tribunal that investigated and prosecuted charges of heresy.
Heresy was defined as holding beliefs different from the teachings of the Church.

Effects of the Crusades

The Crusades demonstrated the power of the Church in convincing thousands to fight.
Women gained more influence by managing estates and business affairs while men were away.
Merchants expanded trade, bringing back many goods from Southwest Asia.
The failure of later crusades weakened the Pope and nobles, strengthening kings.
The Crusades created lasting bitterness between Muslims and Christians.