Comprehensive Study Notes on Relative Clauses, Participles, and Punctuation Rules

Subordinate Clause Structure
- A subordinate clause begins with a subordinate conjunction.
- Punctuation Rule: If a subordinate clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, a comma must be added after it before the independent clause begins.
- If a sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a subordinate clause, typically no comma is required.
Relative Clauses Definition
- A relative clause is a type of dependent clause.
- Functional Definition: It is a dependent clause that describes, identifies, or modifies a noun or a pronoun.
- Structural Start: A relative clause starts with a relative pronoun, such as:
  - Who
  - Whom
  - Whose
  - Which
  - That

Two Primary Types
- Restrictive Relative Clauses:
  - Also known as "Defining" or "Essential" clauses.
  - These are essential to the meaning of the sentence.
  - Without this clause, the term or noun being described becomes a "big question mark" or lacks clarity.
- Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses:
  - Also known as "Non-defining" or "Non-essential" clauses.
  - These can be deleted from the sentence without changing the core meaning.
  - These are strictly dependent in nature.

Restrictive Appositives
- An appositive can be restrictive even if its job is to describe.
- Example: "Professor Noam Chomsky."
  - Logic: The title "Professor" is a restrictive element that tells us specifically who Noam Chomsky is (e.g., he is not the person selling things in the bagala; he is the professor).
  - Punctuation Rule: Nothing should be added between a title and a proper noun (no commas, colons, or backslashes). The title is considered part of the noun.
The Persistence of Restrictive Status
- Once a restrictive element is added to a sentence, it cannot be labeled as non-essential.
- If a sentence is written with a title, that title is restrictive and cannot be separated from the proper noun by punctuation because it defines the subject.

Mechanical Identification on the SAT
- On tests like the SAT, the distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive is usually made clear through punctuation.
- A non-restrictive element must be enclosed using consistent punctuation pairs:
  - Two commas (one before, one after).
  - Two em dashes (one before, one after).
  - Parentheses.
The Rule of Consistency
- If you start a non-restrictive phrase with an em dash, you must end it with an em dash.
- If you start with a comma, you must end with a comma.
- Mixing punctuation (e.g., starting with an em dash and ending with a parenthesis) is incorrect.
Examples of Non-Restrictive Use
- "The flowers, which look beautiful in that vase, were a gift from me."
- "The CEO, who was appointed just last year, has already doubled the company's profit."

Definition of a Verb
- A full verb is composed of two elements: Meaning and Time.
Definition of a Participle
- A participle is essentially Meaning minus Time. It lacks a time element on its own.
- Two Types of Participles:
  - Past Participle: Usually the third verb form (e.g., "taken," "played," "led"). It can end in -ed or -en or be irregular.
  - Present Participle: Always ends in -ing (e.g., "leaving," "leading").
Functions of Participles
- As an Adjective: Used to describe a noun (e.g., "It is a leading company").
- As Part of a Verb: Combined with a helping verb to provide time (e.g., "She is leading the company").
Participial Phrases in Sentences
- If a participial phrase is non-essential, punctuation follows these rules:
  - At the Beginning: Add a comma after the phrase.
  - In the Middle: Enclose between two commas or two em dashes.
  - At the End: Add a comma before the phrase followed by a full stop.

Linking Verbs
- Function: They link the subject with a complement (predicate).
- Meaning: They have no inherent meaning other than carrying the element of Time.
- Example: "She is a doctor." "Is" links the subject "She" to the complement "doctor."
Helping Verbs
- Function: They carry the time element for a main verb or participle.
- Contrast: Linking verbs connect subjects to predicates; helping verbs assist a participle in becoming a full verb that makes sense of time.

Semicolons
- Used to connect two independent clauses.
- Cannot be used to separate a prepositional phrase or a dependent clause from an independent clause.
Dangling Commas
- A common error where a single comma incorrectly separates a subject from its verb.
Quotation Mark Placement
- Inside the Quotation Marks: Commas and full stops (periods).
- Outside the Quotation Marks: Semicolons and colons.
SAT "Red Flags"
- Words ending in -ing or -ed at the end of a sentence (participial phrases) are often mistaken for independent clauses.
- In $90\%$ of cases, if a semicolon and a full stop are both offered as options for the same spot in a multiple-choice test, they are likely both wrong because they perform the same function.

Question: Why shouldn't I add a semicolon here?
Response: A semicolon is for connecting two independent clauses. If you have a phrase like "In large quantities" (a prepositional phrase), you cannot use a semicolon.
Question: Should a comma go inside or outside quotation marks?
Response: Commas and full stops always go inside. Semicolons and colons go outside.
Question: What if you remove the title "Professor" and keep the name "Noam Chomsky" alone?
Response: If you remove it, you've never added the restrictive element. But once it is present in front of you, it acts as a restrictive element that cannot be separated from the proper noun.
Question: What is the difference between linking and helping verbs?
Response: Both carry time. Linking verbs connect the subject to a complement or predicate (like a noun or adjective). Helping verbs assist a participle to form a full verb phrase.