exam 2 flash cards
Sensation and Perception
2.1 Neuroscience
Neuroscience: The study of the nervous system and brain.
Biological Psychology: The scientific study of the biological basis of behavior and mental processes.
Neuron: Basic cell that receives stimulation and transmits information throughout the body.
Dendrites: Receive incoming signals from other neurons.
Soma/Cell Body: Contains the nucleus housing the cell’s genetic material.
Axon: Carries information down the neuron; a long, thin fiber.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty tissue encasing the axon, protecting it and speeding up transmission.
Terminal Buttons/Axon Terminals: Contain chemicals that facilitate communication between neurons
2.2 Neuron Structure
.Neurons send messages to each other using chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Excitatory: in response to a neuron it can “fire” by passing signals along
Inhibitory: hold the fire by not passing the signal along to the next
Synapse: space in between the neurons terminal button (next to dendrites)
Presynaptic neuron: neuron that delivers the signal to the synapse
Postsynaptic neuron: neuron that receives the signal from the synapse
Vesicles: terminal buttons (at the end of neuron) that contain small fluid filled sacs
Vesicles contain neurotransmitters (the chemical message of nervous system)
When stimulated by action potential they burst and the neurotransmitters fill the synapse
After they burst some go travel down across the synapse and chemically stimulate the dendrites of neighboring neurons
Dendrites of neurons have their own specific receptors to “catch” the neurotransmitters (which have their own receptor protein. For them to receive the info they must “fit” into one another
When postsynaptic neuron receives signal it converts back to an electrical signal
Presynaptic: the entire neuron that sends the message
The side that sends the signal (axon terminal side)
Postsynaptic: the entire neuron that receives the signal
is a description, not a place
Its not a physical part like the dendrite or axon terminal
It just means the side that receives the signal after the synapse (The side is the dendrites)
2.3 Neuronal Activity
Mechanics of Neuronal Activity: Neuronal activity involves both electrical and chemical events.
Initial signals are electrical; when impulses reach the neuron's end, the process shifts to a chemical one that transmits signals across the synapse.
Action Potential: A brief electrical charge traveling down the neuron; it requires a sufficient positive threshold to trigger firing.
All-or-Nothing Law: An electrical impulse must surpass a threshold to fire; if it does not, it remains inactive.
Ions: Electrically charged atoms in the neuron’s fluid.
Neurons maintain a negatively charged interior relative to the outside (Resting Potential).
Depolarization: Occurs when positive ions enter, reducing the negativity within the neuron.
Refractory Period: The recovery phase during which a neuron cannot fire again immediately.
Synapse: space in between the neurons terminal button (next to dendrites)
Presynaptic neuron: neuron that delivers the signal to the synapse
Postsynaptic neuron: neuron that receives the signal from the synapse
Vesicles: terminal buttons (at the end of neuron) that contain small fluid filled sacs
Vesicles contain neurotransmitters (the chemical message of nervous system)
When stimulated by action potential they burst and the neurotransmitters fill the synapse
After they burst some go travel down across the synapse and chemically stimulate the dendrites of neighboring neurons
Dendrites of neurons have their own specific receptors to “catch” the neurotransmitters (which have their own receptor protein. For them to receive the info they must “fit” into one another
When postsynaptic neuron receives signal it converts back to an electrical signal
Presynaptic: the entire neuron that sends the message
The side that sends the signal (axon terminal side)
Postsynaptic: the entire neuron that receives the signal
is a description, not a place
Its not a physical part like the dendrite or axon terminal
It just means the side that receives the signal after the synapse (The side is the dendrites)
2.4 Neurotransmission
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals enabling neuronal communication.
Excitatory Transmitters: Encourage the next neuron to fire.
Inhibitory Transmitters: Prevent the next neuron from firing.
Synapse: The gap between neurons, facilitating transmission.
Presynaptic Neuron: The one sending the signal.
Postsynaptic Neuron: The one receiving the signal.
Vesicles: Small sacs in terminal buttons containing neurotransmitters; they burst when activated by action potentials, releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Receptor Binding: Specific neurotransmitters fit into receptor proteins on the postsynaptic neuron's dendrites, converting back to electrical signals effective for the receiving neuron.
Synaptic plasticity: the ability of the brain to adapt to change over time
2.5 The Nervous System
Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System: Encompasses nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons: Carry information to the CNS from sensory organs; involve senses: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Transmit information away from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Interneurons: Enable communication between sensory and motor neurons, assisting in processing information within the brain and spinal cord.
Glial Cells: Supportive cells in the CNS, facilitating neuron maintenance, waste cleanup, myelin production, and nutrition provision.
Blood-Brain Barrier: A selective barrier preventing certain substances in the bloodstream from entering the brain.
Reflex: Automatic, rapid neuromuscular reactions to specific stimuli.
Mechanism: Neuron signals are routed to the spinal cord, where interneurons link to motor neurons, facilitating swift responses.
Stem Cells: Unspecialized cells capable of differentiating into other cell types.
Case of Darek Fidyka: He successfully transplanted olfactory stem cells into his damaged spinal cord, regaining the ability to walk with assistance.
2.6 Reflex Actions
Endocrine system: secondary and slower communication style in the body that involves hormones (control most of body's major bodily functions + immune system, growth, fertility, metabolism
Adipose tissue (fat) is considered an endocrine organ (influences metabolic and hormone responses)
Hormones: chemical messengers secreted by the glands into the bloodstream to regulate activity of cells and organs
Hypothalamus(CEO): ultimate director of glandular activity
Pituitary gland (COO): master gland, releases hormones to influence all other glands and hormones in the body
Pineal gland: plays important role in the sleep wake cycle (located deep in the center of the brain)
Secretes melatonin when it gets dark outside
Thyroid gland: controls your metabolism and energy levels (butterfly shape gland located in the front of your neck)
Too much hormone = Hyperthyroidism (fast metabolism, weight loss, anxiety)
Too little hormone = Hypothyroidism (slow metabolism, weight gain, tiredness)
Pancreas: produces hormones that regulate glucose levels in the blood stream (insulin)
Adrenal gland: play a role in stress response (top of kidney)
Secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) and some norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Gonads: glands involved in sexual development (ovaries and testes)
2.7 Stem Cells in Neuroscience
Structural questions: what, where
Functional questions: how
Computed tomograph (CT scan): machine that takes x-rays from many different frames
Allows certain tissues or organs to be observed more clearly
Takes 5 min (more common in emergency rooms)
Less expensive
Magnetic resonance resonance imaging (MRI): uses large magnets to examine the structural aspect of the brain, organ or tissue
Large magnet that "excites" and aligns hydrogen atoms in an area.
Protons lie at the center of each atom and are sensitive to magnetic fields
Uses a strong magnet to line up hydrogen atoms in the body.
Magnetic fields turn on/off, making atoms move and then return to rest.
Measures this movement to create detailed images of tissues/organs.
Does not use padiation
EEG (Electroencephalogram)
Measures brain’s electrical activity using sensors on the scalp.
Very accurate timing of brain signals.
Helps diagnose sleep problems, epilepsy, and brain death.
Used to study brain activity in reading and mental health issues like ADHD and depression.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG):
Measures magnetic fields from brain activity (not electrical signals).
Very fast timing (milliseconds).
Shows exact brain locations of activity.
Helps study epilepsy, schizophrenia, and brain development.
More expensive than EEG.
Positron emission tomography (PET)
3d images
Radioactive glucose is injected into body, as it decays positrons are released. (picked up my scanner)
Computer takes the output into color coded images of brain
Functional MRI: Shows brain activity by tracking blood flow.Active brain areas get more blood.
Helps see which parts of the brain are working during tasks.
2.8 The Endocrine System
Definition: A slower communication system in the body that utilizes hormones to regulate various operations, such as metabolism, immune responses, and growth.
Hormones: Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream, orchestrating cellular and organ functions.
Control Centers:
Hypothalamus: The master regulator of gland activity.
Pituitary Gland: The chief gland coordinating hormonal activity across the body.
Pineal Gland: Regulates sleep-wake cycles, secreting melatonin in response to darkness.
Thyroid Gland: Influences metabolism and energy levels; imbalances can cause hyperthyroidism (excess activity) or hypothyroidism (insufficient activity).
Adrenal Gland: Key player in stress response via the secretion of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
Gonads: Involved in sexual development and function, producing sex hormones (e.g., ovaries and testes).
2.9 Imaging Techniques in Neuroscience
Frontal Lobe: Responsible for cognitive functions like thinking, planning, movement, language, and personality.
Parietal Lobe: Processes touch, spatial awareness, and body sensations.
Temporal Lobe: Engages with auditory information, language comprehension, memory, and emotions.
Occipital Lobe: Centers on visual processing.
2.10 Brain Functionality
Corpus callosum: band of axon that enables communication between the right and left hemisphere of the brain
Contralateral: principle that states each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
Right brain: creative side, art, music
Left brain: logic, math, facts, language
Callosotomy: severing of the fibers of the corpus callosum (to control seizures)
2.11 Brain Hemispheres
Corpus Callosum: A band of axons linking the left and right hemispheres, enabling interhemispheric communication.
Contralateral Control: Each brain hemisphere manages opposite body sides; the right hemisphere oversees the left side of the body and vice versa.
Cognitive Specializations:
Right Brain: Engaged in creative processes (art and music).
Left Brain: Governed by logic (math, facts, and language).
2.12 Genetics and Behavior
Chromosomes: Structures carrying genetic information (DNA); humans possess 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
Genes: Segments of DNA governing attributes and bodily functions, inherited from both parents, influencing physical and behavioral traits.
Mendelian Genetics: Dominant and recessive gene inheritance principles.
Genotype vs. Phenotype: Genotype consists of the complete genetic makeup, while phenotype encompasses the observable characteristics resulting from genes.
2.13 Influences on Behavior
Heritability: The extent to which genetic factors account for individual variations in observed traits influenced by the environment.
Twin Studies: Reveal the influence of genetics on traits when comparing twins raised apart or together.
Adoption Studies: Investigate the similarities in traits between adoptees and their biological and adoptive parents, linking genetic and environmental influences.
2.14 Epigenetics
Epigenetics: Scientific study of changes in gene expression driven by environmental factors, demonstrating that interactions (e.g., stress and diet) can activate or deactivate genes.
Mouse Studies: Illustrate the effects of environmental manipulation on obesity genes in mice and implications for human obesity.
2.15 Hormonal Regulation
Hormonal Function: Control most body functions; influenced by physical stimuli (e.g., stress, fat tissue activates certain responses).
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment regulated by hormonal actions.
2.16 Synaptogenesis and Neurogenesis
Neurogenesis: The process of creating new neurons, primarily occurring within the hippocampus, linked to memory and learning.
Example: Cathepsin B, a protein secreted during exercise to promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
2.17 Summary of Neuroscience
Neurons interact through intricate synaptic processes involving neurotransmitters—crucial for brain communication.
Complexity arises from collective interactions underlying behaviors and experiences
.3.1 Sensation
3.1
Sensation: process where physical energy from the environment is covered into neural signals to be interpreted by the brain
Detects physical energy (e.g., light, sound).
Converts energy into neural signals.
Raw data sent to the brain.
Like code: meaningless until interpreted.
Perception: process where brain selects, organizes and interprets sensory info
Brain interprets sensory signals.
Makes sense of what we sense.
Turns raw data into meaningful info.
E.g., reading: light → signals → words.
Receptor cells: cell in sensory organ stimulated by energy leading to sensation
Transduction: process physical energy (light/sound) is converted into electrical (neural) charge
energy -> signal-> brain
Hear sound waves, mechanical energy
See light, electric magnetic energy
Smell + taste conversion of chemical energy
3.2
Psychophysics: study of relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli and sensory experiences
How do changes in the physical world affect what we sense and perceive
Absolute threshold: smallest amount of energy needed for a person to detect a stimuli (50%) of the time
Smallest to be detected at all
Difference threshold: minimum difference between stimuli needed to detect the difference at least 50% of the time
Smallest change between two things (one sound gets louder than another)
Determined by ratios
Weber's law: difference between two objects varies proportionally to the initial size of stimulus
Detect theory: explains differences in peoples responses to stimuli based on vary circumstances
3.3
Subliminal perception: when sensation calls below the absolute threshold
The brain can detect images presented for just 250microseconds
Subliminal persuasion: using subliminal techniques to influence peoples behaviors
People use a small sent of cookies in a store (not strong) to get people to want to get cookies.
Flash words on the screen for a small amount of seconds to influence people to get something
A persons goals and motives need to be consistent with the desire outcome
Those who are thirsty and primed on are more likely to get a drink than those who aren't thirsty
Sensory adaptation: occurs when sense is exposed to an unchanging stimulus and eventually stops registering the existence of that stimuli
Some people might smell your house but you don't smell it.
3.4
All vision starts with light
Light: is energy that is contained with the electromagnetic spectrum, which is a continuum of waves of electromagnetic radiation
Simple description of the electromagnetic spectrum is that it contains a variety of waves.
Wavelengths: distance between the peak of each wave of energy (measured in nanometers)
Brightness: the characteristic of color derived form the amplitude or Hight of wavelengths\
Saturation: refers to the richness of a color
Hue: color which is derived from wavelength of light that hits the eye
Shorter wavelength are seen as purple/blue while longer wavelength are red
Cornea: the protective cover over the eye (refracts/ bends light to focus on objects)
After the cornea, light goes to the pupil: small hole in the middle of eye that allows light to enter
Pupil is black because the surrounding tissue absorbs the light
Pupil is controlled by the iris
Iris: a colored muscle that dilated (gets bigger) or contracts (gets smaller) the pupil in response to light
Lens: flexible structure in the eye that changes shape to reflect and focus light on the retina
Visual accommodation: a process that involves the lens changing shape to best refract and focus light on the retina
presbyopia(old eye): hardening of the lens of the eye that leads to blurred near vision
Retina: multilayered tissue at the back of the eye responsible for visual transduction, or the conversion of the light stimuli into neural communication leading to vision
Light enters your eye.
It hits the retina, which has special cells (called photoreceptors).
These cells convert the light into electrical signals.
The signals are sent to your brain, and your brain turns them into a picture — that’s how you see!
Due to the size and structure of the lens
Eye lens makes images upside-down on retina.
Retina changes light into signals.
Signals go to brain.
Brain flips the image right-side up.
3.5
There are two types of photoreceptor cells in the first layer of the retina (at the very back of the retina) rods and cones
Rods: retinal receptors that respond to varying degrees of light and dark (work best with dimply lit conditions)
Cones: visual receptors specializing in the perception of color, found primary in the fovea (work best in bright light)
Optic nerve (which is ganglion cells bundled together): carries neural messages from the eye to the brain to be processed
The optic nerve is made up of millions of ganglion cell axons — not the whole ganglion cells.
The cell bodies of those ganglion cells stay inside the retina.
Their axons bundle together to form the optic nerve, which carries visual info from the eye to the brain.
Blind spot: receptor less area at the back of the eye where the optic nerve exits
Right half of each retina processes info from the left visual field and the left half of each retina processes info from the right
Temporal retina is the outside half of each retina (close to your temple) and the nasal retina refers to the inside half of each retina
Right temporal retina and left nasal retina that process info from the left visual field
When looking straight ahead we use for parts the 4 parts of the retinas
Optic chiasm: area in the brain where portion of both optic nerves cross over and continue to the visual cortex
Allows brain to process two sets of images to help perceive in 3D
Feature detector: neurons that respond to specific types of features in the visual field
Parallel processing: the ability of the brain to simultaneously perceive many aspects of an object at one time
Blindsight: blindness in parts of the visual field due to damage to the primary visual cortex (despite not being able to consciously see, individuals are often still aware of characteristics of objects)
3.6
The sky is everything but blue because absorbs every color but blue and reflects blue wavelengths
Our brain transduces the sensations from light into the perception of color
Subtractive color mixture: you cant see colors wavelengths/all the colors are absorbed
All color absorbed= black
No color absorbed= white
Additive color mixture: you can see all the colors wavelengths/ no colors are absorbed
Trichromatic theory of color vision/ young-helmholtz theory of color vision: theory that there are three different types of retinal receptors (rods and cones in the back of the eye that detect light) that are each sensitive to varying wavelengths of light
Blue cones: short-wavelength cones (absorbs up to 419-nm)
Green cones: medium-wavelength cones (absorbs up to 531-nm)
Red cones: long wavelength cones (absorb up to 558-nm)
Monochromatism: no functioning cones (only see shades of grey)
Dichromatism: only have two functioning cones
Inherited from x chromosome (males inherit colorblindness more often than females because females can be a carrier without having the condition)
Afterimage: image that remains in visual field once stimulus has been removed
Negative afterimage: colors are seen opposite of those originally presented (opposite)
Opponent process theory: color vision stating there are three special visual receptors that work in pairs and in opposing manner.
Microsaccades: small jerky movements of eye which allow neurons to rest to prevent exhaustion
3.7
Sound wave: change in air pressure caused by the molecules of air or fluid colliding and moving apart
Frequency: rate of a sound measured in cycles per second or hertz (determines the pitch of the sound)
Humans can hear from 20-20,000Hz (makes us partially pitch deaf)
How loud or soft something is the Hight of the sound wave
Absolute threshold for hearing is set at 0 edibles, any thing above 85 decibels can cause hearing loss
Tamber: referring to sound, the purity and complexity of tone
The location of our ears allow us to hear stereophonically (using two separate audio channels)
Sound shadow: absorption of sound by the head (sound wave hits one ear first then dampened by the head
Helps us locate where the sound is coming from
Stimuli from environment (sound wave vibrations) are transduced in the ear from pressure signals to electrical signals, then interpreted in the brain to indicate specific sounds, pitch and timber
Ear drum/tympanic membrane: part of outer ear that vibrates in response to sound in environment
The three bones in the middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) pass the vibration from the ear drum to one another to the oval window to pass on to the cochlea
Cochlea: fluid filled structure in the inner ear that receives vibrations from small bones of the middle ear
Fluid in the cochlea causes ripples in the basilar membrane
Basilar membrane: stiff structure component of the cochlea which is lined with thousands of hair
Hair contains cilia of the tips that stimulate receptor cells and send messages through the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe
Cilia: hair cell receptors in the ear that send messages through the auditory nerve to the auditory cortex in the brain
The volume of the sound affects the number of hair cells that are activated (too much noise can permanently damage the hair)
3.8
Louder sounds carry and release more energy in the cochlea
Place theory: different pitches activate different sets of hair cells along the cochlea’s basilar membrane (high pitch)
Frequency theory: pitch of sound is perceived by the frequency of neural firing (low pitch)
The more the basilar membrane vibrates per second, the more nerve signals per second, and that tells your brain the pitch.
Volley principle: neurons take turns firing and combining forces to create more power
Each auditory neuron (nerve cell) can only fire (generate action potentials) at a limited rate—usually up to about 1,000 times per second (1,000 Hz). But humans can hear sounds up to around 20,000 Hz.
A relay race: No single runner (neuron) runs the whole race (follows every wave cycle), but as a team, they pass the baton (spike) to keep up with the pace.
Sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss that results form damage to the cochlea in the inner hear or damage to the nerve pathway from inner ear to brain
Cochlear implant: hearing device that takes sounds from environment and converts them to electrical signals to be interpreted by the brain
Conductive hearing loss: type of hearing impairment where sound is not conducted properly though the outer or middle ear
Mixed hearing loss: involves a combination of both sensorineural and conductive hearing loss
3.9
Olfaction: term for our ability to smell odors
Molecules of substance is carried through the air to receptor cells at top of nasal cavities
Large protein molecules on olfactory neurons bind to specific odorants (fits like a key)
Chemical stimuli are transduced into electrical messages that travel along the olfactory nerve to to brain
Area of our brain that receives info from receptor cells in nasal cavity is closely linked to limbic system (associated with memory and emotions)
Smell signals have direct links to emotion and memory centers of the brain (hippocampus and amygdala)
Taste buds: test receptor cells located inside the fungiform papillae (bumps on the tongue)
Microvilli: tiny hairs at the tip of the taste receptors that generate nerve impulse
Taste signals are passed to the limbic system and the cerebral cortex
3.10
Our sense of touch is part of the somatosensory system
Pain is sensed by nociceptors (detect potentially harmful pressure, chemicals, or temperatures)
Gate control theory of pain: info about pain is conveyed through two different nerve fibers; pain can be stopped by activation large nerve fibers, which close the smaller pain gates
Thin fiber for pain
Thick fiber for relaying touch, pressure and vibrations
(the sensation that is perceived the most can close the other gate)
Endorphins can decrease the feeling of pain
Current understanding of pain has three interrelated dimensions
Sensory discriminative: intensity, location, quality and duration of pain
Affective motivational: negative experience of pain and desire to flee painful circumstances
Cognitive evaluative dimension: individual interpretation of pain and surrounding context (cultural values and expectations)
Acute pain can be managed by virtual reality video games
Chronic pain can be managed by medication
Complementary and alternative medication: using natural or alternative treatments like herbs, supplements, or acupuncture instead of or alongside regular medicine. 1)whole medical systems 2) mind body medicine(yoga) 3)biologically based therapies(herbs) 4) body manipulative(massage) 5)energy healing
Proprioceptors: sensory receptors that provide info about movement
3.11
bottom -up processing: method that involves processing info from raw data or environment or stimuli to the brain
Top-down processing: relies heavy on previous knowledge
3.12
Perceptual constancy: perception remains the same even through some characteristics have changed
We don't think kids are shrinking when they run away because of size constancy (perception of objects does not change regardless of change in distance)
Color candidacy: we know color of something even in different lightings
We know an apple is red even in dim lighting
Shape consistency: we know the shape of something even if it changes position
Perceptual set: experiences influence how objects are perceived
Kid hands you a scribble paper and tell you its a horse you are more likely to see a horse
Illusory contour: visual illusion lines or contours are perceived but not exist
3.13
Proximity: tendency to perceive objects close to one another as part of the same group
Similarity: tendency to perceive objects as same shape of size or color as part of a pattern
Closure: tendency to perceive images as complete objects
Continuity: view intersecting lines as part of a continuous pattern rather than series of separate lines
3.14
Depth perception: judge distance of object
Oculomotor cues: what happens with and within your eye when you are perceiving depth
Convergence: inward movement of the eye that occurs when looking at something close up
Monocular cues: depth and cues seen by one eye
Pictorial cues: info on depth for 2d pictures
Linear perspective: depth cue on parallel lines and distance
Relative size: smaller things are further away
Relative Hight: taller things are further away even if two objects are the same size off the illusion
Interposition: something blocks another. Thing in the back is blocked
Motion parallax: objects further away are moving more slow
Binocular cue: depth cue of using both eyes
3.15
Perceptual illusion: perception is different than actual stimulus
Visual illusions
Literal visual illusions: creates images different from the object that make them (rainbow)
Physiological illusions: excessive stimulation to the eye or brain
Cognitive illusions: higher-order thinking (assumptions about the world or impossible pictures
Muller-lyre illusion: geometric illusion, one line looks longer because of arrows but they are the same
chapter 13
Chapter 13
Social cognition: focuses on role of cognitive processes in terms of how people think
Person perception: different mental processes used to perceive the personality characteristics of others
Impact these decisions have on behavior
Embodied cognition: field of study that examines how bodily sensations influence person perception
13.2
Heuristics: mental shortcuts aimed at reducing the complexity of our world
Kotsiopoulos: describes heuristics as models for making decisions that
Rely heavy on core human abilities
Do not use all available info, process info they use by simple computations
Easy to understand and explain
Availability heuristic: using info that is easily recalled or available to us when making decisions
Just because something is easily remembered does not mean its an accurate reflection of reality
Ex: when parents are asked why they don't let their kids out alone they prob would tell all the stories of kids being abducted; even though the numbers are low of kids being taken
Social categorization: grouping people or things according to certain characteristics (age, race, gender)
Implicit Personality theory: set of assumptions people make out the relationship between certain personality traits they have on an individual
You might assume people who use big words are smart and those who don't are slow
13.3
Attribution theory: we understand behavior by attributing their behavior to either internal dispositions or external situations
Attribution: explanation about the cause of our own or others behaviors
Dispositional attribution/internal: another person's behavior to personality or personal characteristics
you think someone acts a certain way because of who they are
Situational attribution/external: You believe they acted that way because of the situation, not because of who they are.
“Maybe there was traffic” or “They probably had an emergency,”
you’re making an external attribution — blaming something outside of the person.
1. Fundamental Attribution Error: This is when we blame other people’s behavior on their personality, instead of the situation they might be in.
Example: If someone cuts you off in traffic, you might think: “Wow, what a jerk!”
2. Actor-Observer Bias: This is when we explain our own behavior differently than how we explain other people's behavior.
When you do something bad, you blame the situation, When someone else does the same thing, you blame them as a person.
Example: You’re late → “There was traffic!”; Someone else is late → “They’re irresponsible.”
3. Self-Serving Bias: This is when we take credit for the good things we do, but blame the situation for the bad things.
Example: You pass a test → “I’m smart!”; You fail a test → “The test was unfair.
13.4
Attitude: general term for your thoughts/ feelings about something or someone
Explicit attitude: what you say you believe
implicit attitude: what you may really feel deep down (even if you don't know it, unconscious)
All attitudes have all 3
Affective component: emotions or feelings towards something or someone
Behavioral: how people act or behave towards someone and something
cognitive component: thoughts and belief people hold about something or someone
13.5
Theory of planned behavior: behavior determined by a person's attitude about the topic, subjective norms and behavioral control (confidence level).
Self-perception theory: people develop attitudes about various topics based on their own behaviors.
Sometimes we aren't consciously aware of our attitude towards something (someone might ask you what your type is and you don't know till someone points out you only have dated blonds)
Action perceives motivation
Someone will say they didn't like going to the gym till they started to consistently go
Cognitive dissonance: what you believe does not match what you do (uncomfortable feeling)
You believe smoking is bad for your health but you still do it.
13.6
Persuasion: effort to change an attitude or belief
Persuasive communication: actively attempting to change an attitude or belief by delivering a message that favors a specific side of an issue.
Effect persuasive message: a message to change someone’s mind or influence behavior
Elaboration likelihood model: some process of attitude change requires a lot of mental effort
Most effective persuasive technique depends on the motivation of the audience
Central route: focuses on strong well presented argument that are relevant and appeal to the topic
Peripheral route: It’s when someone is persuaded by surface-level things instead of the actual message or facts.
persuaded by looks, feelings, or vibes — not deep thinking.
13.7
Compliance: change in persons behavior that occurs in response to a direct request
Foot in the door technique: asking people to comply with a mall request first and then after they agree, making larger request
Door in the face technique: making large request first then request is refused so they make smaller requests that seems reasonable in comparison
Lowball technique: offering a good deal then changing terms later
13.8
Obedience: complying with direct request that come from a person of authority
13.9
Conformity: adjust one's behavior to align with a group standard
Normative social influence: peoples desire to be approved by others and longing to be apart of a group
If you eat with your hands because someone else does it even if you don't like it
Informal social influence: This happens when you copy others because you think they know better than you
You research how to eat properly in a country to “properly” eat where you are
Suggestibility: how easily a person’s thoughts, memories, or behaviors can be influenced by others
13.10
Social facilitation: tendency to perform easy tasks better when others are watching
Social loafing: people put less effort in something when they are apart a a group because they believe individual effort does not matter, or they won't be held personally responsible for the outcome
Risky shift: decisions made in groups are more risky than if they were to do it alone
Group polarization: like-minded groups to become more extreme in their opinions as a result of being apart of the group
Groupthink: group members opinions become uniform that any difference in opinion is not possible
Deindividuation: give up personal responsibility that occurs when someone is a part of a group
Ex: You're at a big concert with thousands of people. The crowd starts pushing, yelling, and throwing stuff onto the stage. Even though you're usually calm and polite, you join in, yelling and jumping around too.
People can also do this because they feel anonymous
Social identity model of deindividuation effect: explanation for behavior that takes into account the shared social identity of a group and situational group norms
People in groups act based on group values, not personal ones.
Zimbardo's experiment: college students put in a fake prison. Half were guards and others were prisoners. He observed the "guards" became overly aggressive
People can act in extreme ways when put in roles of authority
13.11
Prejudice: negative learned attitude towards others
Discrimination: negative behavior towards people for being apart of a group
Stereotypes: belief about a group
Explicit stereotype: conscious belief about a group
Implicit stereotype: unconscious belief about a group
Ingroup: people favor their group above others
Out group: people dislike people not in their groups
Scapegoat theory: concept that negative learned attitude comes from need to find someone to blame for negative circumstances (typically individuals in an outgroup)
Realistic conflict theory: People or groups often fight or dislike each other when they’re competing for limited resources, like money, jobs, power, or land
13.12
Aggression: purposeful behavior intended to cause harm
Genetic predisposition to aggression stem mostly from the neurotransmitter serotonin
Hormones normally testosterone (high level) and cortisol (low level) linked to aggression
Frustration aggression hypothesis: occur when people feel frustrated as a result of being blocked from achieving goal
The environment can cause aggression. (criminal says he was abused as a kid)
Intimate Partner Violence: It happens in dating, married, or former relationships, and it's about power and control, not just anger or stress.
13.13
Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to other people leads to feelings of attraction
Similarity: more similar you are to someone the more likely they are to increase attraction with someone
Passionate love: intense longing and desire for another person (emotion cognitive, behavioral components)
Compassionate love: feeling of affection and intimacy for another
Triangular theory of love (Robert Sternberg): 3 components of love being intimacy, passion and commitment
Consummate love: type of love that has all 3 components of love
13.14
Prosocial behavior: behavior carried out with the goal of helping others
Altruism: behavior carried out with the goal of helping others without concern for their own safety
Reciprocal altruism: people may carry out altruism in though they might receive that too (Carma)
Diffusion of responsibility: the more people to witness something the more likely each person is to take action