Comprehensive History and Theory of Advertising and Propaganda and Advertising

Conceptual Foundations of Advertising and Propaganda

The fundamental distinction between advertising and propaganda lies in their primary objectives and intentions. While advertising is driven by a commercial intention, focusing on selling products and obtaining results in the short term, propaganda is characterized by an ideological intention. According to Pineda Cachero, the receptor of propaganda is typically situated within religious, military, or political contexts, rather than the commercial or economic spheres associated with advertising. Lluis Bassat further emphasizes that the number $1$ objective of advertising is to sell and achieve immediate results. The transcendence of propaganda is considered greater than that of advertising because it seeks to change or reinforce fundamental ideologies and significant life decisions, such as voting or adhering to specific doctrines.

Early Historical Development of Public Communication

The history of commercial messaging dates back to ancient civilizations. The Phoenicians used bonfires as a primitive form of advertising to attract attention to their trades. In Ancient Greece, public notices were displayed on specialized supports: axones, which were wooden posts, and kybos, which were cylindrical columns. In Ancient Rome, Julius Caesar established the Acta Diurna, a daily official bulletin used to publish official news, announcements of public spectacles, and commercial advertisements. However, following these early developments, the Middle Ages saw a significant decline in advertising activity due to the nearly total disappearance of established commercial routes. The eventual invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg acted as a catalyst for the return and expansion of advertising by facilitating the production of printed posters, brochures, and catalogs.

The Impact of the Industrial Revolution and the Rise of the Press

The Industrial Revolution triggered a massive migration of populations from the countryside to cities as people sought employment in new industrial factories. The first industrial sector to experience significant growth was the cotton industry, and this era saw the consolidation of the bourgeoisie as the dominant social class. The ideals of the French Revolution—Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity—also influenced the communicative landscape of the time. During the early $19^{th}$ century, the relationship between manufacturers and consumers was transformed by the emergence of commercial advertising and brand identity. A pivotal figure in this period was Théophraste Renaudot, who founded the Gazette de France and the Bureau d’Adresses. Technical innovations such as lithography revolutionized the medium by allowing the easy integration of text and images in large, colorful print runs.

The Professionalization of Mass Media and Early Agencies

In the mid-$19^{th}$ century, the financing model of newspapers underwent a radical change. In France, Émile de Girardin used advertising as the primary source of income for his newspaper, La Presse, which allowed him to lower the purchase price for the public. Similarly, in the United States, Benjamin Day founded The New York Sun with the slogan "It Shines for All," using low prices to reach a wider audience. Advertising during this time primarily consisted of short text-based ads, sometimes accompanied by simple engravings or typographic variations. To manage the saturation of posters in public spaces, cities developed new strategies such as advertising columns and the use of "sandwich men," although some still resorted to painting ads directly onto walls. In terms of agency development, Volney B. Palmer is recognized as the first official advertising agent, selling space in newspapers in exchange for a commission. George P. Rowell later marked a milestone in media planning by publishing the American Newspaper Directory and introducing the sale of advertising space in packages.

Modern Branding and Scientific Advertising

At the end of the $19^{th}$ century, advertising took on a didactic function, teaching consumers how to use new inventions like the bicycle or the camera. This period saw the rise of modern branding as manufacturers sought to build consumer loyalty directly; companies like Ford, Nestlé, and Kellogg’s became household names. Kellogg’s notably used the phrase "The genuine bears this signature" to safeguard its brand identity. Retail also evolved with Aristide Boucicaut founding the first department stores using innovative advertising techniques, and Montgomery Ward popularizing catalog sales in $1872$. In the early $20^{th}$ century, the industry shifted toward more structured methodologies. John E. Kennedy introduced the concept of "salesmanship in print," arguing that advertising should be a rational, unadorned "writer-salesman." Albert Lasker helped Lord & Thomas become the most important agency in the U.S. by applying these principles. Furthermore, public health concerns led to the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act in $1906$ to regulate food and pharmaceutical advertising.

The Art of the Poster: Modernism and Vanguard Styles

The Belle Époque was characterized by the artistic elevation of the advertising poster. Jules Chéret is credited with creating large, colorful posters that lacked drama and focused on visual appeal. Alphonse Mucha became famous for his posters featuring elongated female figures set against floral and vegetable backgrounds. Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen introduced social themes and the iconic use of cats into poster art, often employing a more descriptive or anti-war style. Generally, Modernist posters were defined by vibrant colors, sophisticated female figures, exotic or medieval settings, and a predominance of curved lines where aesthetics often took precedence over the message itself. By the interwar period, posters shifted toward the avant-garde. Cassandre utilized cubist inspiration, straight lines, and geometry, viewing the poster as an "advertising machine." Meanwhile, in Germany, Peter Behrens created a comprehensive corporate identity for AEG.

Propaganda and Advertising During the World Wars

During World War I, the poster was the primary medium for propaganda, used to recruit soldiers, raise funds, and boost morale. Iconic designs included the British poster "Your Country Needs You" by Alfred Leete. This era of warfare proved that advertising could effectively influence human behavior through psychological triggers. After the war, advertising began utilizing "social threat" as a tool, exemplified by the Listerine campaign targeting halitosis. Scientific advertising reached new heights with Claude C. Hopkins, who introduced the use of coupons to measure campaign efficacy and advocated for the "reason-why" approach. In the interwar years, radio emerged as a dominant mass medium, leading to the creation of "soap operas" by companies like Procter & Gamble to promote their products. The $1929$ stock market crash forced brands to abandon creativity in favor of aggressive, price-point-driven messaging like sales and promotions.

The Television Era and the Golden Age of Creativity

Television began regular broadcasts in Germany in $1935$ and soon became the most influential mass medium and a primary driver of consumer culture. This era was defined by several iconic creative philosophies. Rosser Reeves developed the Unique Selling Proposition (USP), which focused on a single, clear benefit that distinguished a product from its competitors. David Ogilvy emphasized brand image and emotional connection, believing ads should be intelligent and data-driven. Leo Burnett focused on folklore and popular archetypes (such as the Marlboro Man), while Bill Bernbach championed a style of "creative revolution" that was fresh and independent of traditional research. In the political realm, the $1952$ Eisenhower campaign pioneered the use of television ads, and the $1960$ Kennedy-Nixon debate demonstrated the power of television imagery in shaping public perception. Notable women also rose to prominence, such as Mary Wells Lawrence, known for the "I Love NY" campaign, and Jane Maas, who held high-level creative roles.

History and Evolution of Advertising in Spain

The Spanish advertising industry trace its professional roots to Rafael Roldós, who founded the first agency in Spain. Pedro Prat Gaballí is credited with introducing "scientific advertising" to Spain in $1917$, focusing on consumer psychology and planning. Before the Spanish Civil War, Barcelona's "El Siglo" was the leading department store. During the Civil War, the poster became a vital tool for ideological propaganda. The post-war period (posguerra) was characterized by heavy censorship, scarce products, and nationalistic messaging. Radio was the dominant medium during this time, known for long "cuñas" (commercial spots) and popular slogans. The arrival of television in the $1960$s transformed the landscape, reinforcing the regime's propaganda while boosting modern consumption. In $1964$, the "Estatuto de la Publicidad" was approved, leading to professionalization through the National Institute of Advertising. With the return of democracy, advertising became liberalized and prestigious, represented by figures like Lluis Bassat and Toni Segarra, and political campaigns such as the PSOE’s $1982$ slogan "Por el cambio."