7.5

Alcohol and Traditional Ways: The Shawnee leaders emphasized a return to traditional ways, resisting the influences of American western expansion and the introduction of alcohol.
Support from Other Nations: They found their greatest support among several Native nations of the western Great Lakes, including:
- Kickapoo
- Potawatomi
- Ho-Chunk
- Odawa
- Ojibwe warriors who were relatively unaffected by U.S. expansion.
Prophetstown: Many of these warriors flocked to Prophetstown, Tenskwatawa's holy village located in the Indiana Territory.

Tecumseh's Mobilization: As Tecumseh organized his followers for conflict, Indiana Territory’s Governor William Henry Harrison opted for a preemptive strike.
Battle of Tippecanoe (November 1811):
- While Tecumseh sought support from tribes in the south, Harrison attacked Prophetstown.
- Harrison commanded a force of 1,000 troops and militiamen, resulting in heavy casualties for both sides.
- Harrison’s forces ultimately destroyed Prophetstown.

Context of the War: Britain assisted Indigenous nations in western territories while also seizing American ships in the Atlantic, severely straining U.S.-British relations.
Call to War: Key players pushing towards war included:
- Henry Clay (Kentucky): Speaker of the House of Representatives.
- John C. Calhoun (South Carolina): A rising congressman advocating for territorial expansion into British Canada and Spanish Florida.
Madison's Ultimatum: As elections approached, Madison issued an ultimatum to Britain. Upon lack of response:
- A sharply divided Senate voted 19-13 in favor of war, the House passed the bill 79-49.

Commercial Rights: The U.S. justified the war on the grounds that Britain violated its rights as a neutral nation.
Political Divisions: Federalists from New England opposed the war, leading to a significant electoral split:
- Federalists championed neutrality and opposed the war effort.
- Republican support for the war was strongest in the South and West, indicating a regional divide.
Historical Perspective: Historians often critique the War of 1812 as “a western war with eastern labels” reflecting underlying political tensions.

Initial Campaigns: Early American military efforts, such as invading Canada, largely ended in disaster, leading to retreats.
Key Events:
- Burning of York: American raiders burned the Canadian capital of York (Toronto).
- Battle of Lake Erie: Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry led a victorious engagement against the British naval forces.
- Battle of the Thames: General Harrison defeated British and Native American forces, killing Tecumseh and marking a significant U.S. victory.

British Offensive: By 1814, American setbacks led to increased opposition:
- British troops launched an attack on Washington D.C., burning the Capitol and White House in retaliation for the York destruction.
Stalemate on the Canadian Frontier: The U.S. found itself defensively stationed along the Canadian border.
Southern Victories: Noteworthy victories included General Andrew Jackson defeating British-supported Muscogees at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, forcing them to cede 23 million acres of land.

Decline of Federalist Support: Sharp military setbacks increased Federalist opposition in New England.
Hartford Convention (1814): Massachusetts Federalists proposed radical reforms, including:
- Constitutional amendments limiting presidential terms.
- A requirement for a two-thirds majority in Congress to declare war or restrict trade.
Financial Strain: The war had enormously impacted the national debt, growing to $127 million, complicating the war effort.

Negotiation for Peace: By 1815, Britain, worn from its war with France, sought peace, culminating in the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, which restored prewar borders without loss of territory.
Battle of New Orleans:
- On January 8, 1815, General Jackson achieved a decisive victory over British forces.
- The British suffered approximately 700 dead and 2,000 additional casualties, while only 13 Americans died.
Public Reaction: The victory raised national morale and obscured the Hartford Convention's calls for constitutional reform.

Shift in Political Landscape: Following the War of 1812, the Republican Party adapted:
- Division into two camps; the National Republicans pursued Federalist-like policies under Henry Clay.
Second Bank of the United States: Henry Clay successfully advocated for the formation of the Second Bank in 1816, further aligning with pro-Federalist policies.
Decline of the Federalist Party: The Federalist Party weakened post-war, overshadowed by the Republican Party's growing dominance.

Judicial Review: Established in Marbury v. Madison (1803), asserting the Supreme Court's authority to overturn state laws.
Significant Cases:
- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Confirmed the constitutionality of the Second Bank and denied Maryland's right to tax it, reinforcing national supremacy.
- Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Struck down a New York law granting a monopoly on interstate steamboat travel, enhancing federal control over interstate commerce.
Protection of Property Rights: Marshall's court employed the contract clause of the Constitution to safeguard property rights against state legislation perceived to infringe upon them.

Impact of the War of 1812: Despite significant challenges, the War of 1812 defined national identity, leading to increased nationalism and paving the way for future political shifts.
Federalism vs. Republicanism: The evolution post-war saw increasing acceptance of Federalist policies among Republicans and a gradual fading of Federalist influence in American politics, leading to a distinct national character and a focus on expansion.