APAH unit 5 notes
La Grande Odalisque, And There's Nothing To Be Done, and Liberty Leading the People
Ingres painted La Grande Odalisque (#107) to imagine life for women in the Ottoman Empire through the lens of a French artist. The scene depicted never actually existed; it portrays a sex slave, known as an odalisque, held in a harem. The woman is treated purely as an object, serving as a prime example of Orientalism—a practice of exoticizing and sexualizing people and places from the East. The painting incorporates many Eastern elements and implies a life of polygamy, where she would be one of multiple wives. Stylistically, this work belongs to the Romantic movement, which prioritized emotion over reason. It was heavily criticized at the time because it broke away from the strict rules of Neoclassicism.
Francisco de Goya's etching, And There's Nothing to be Done (#106), captures the brutality of the French invasion of Spain during the Napoleonic Wars. As Napoleon attempted to take over Spain, his troops killed countless civilians. Goya, a Spanish artist, harbored a deep resentment toward France and portrayed the occupiers negatively. The piece is part of a larger series documenting the horrors of war. It is considered Romantic due to its intense emotional content, specifically the depiction of raw fear and violence. The work faced heavy censorship because of its anti-French sentiment and was only released after Goya's death. The central figure is tied to a wooden pole and is intentionally rendered to look like a Christ figure, implying a sense of martyrdom.
Liberty Leading the People (#108) by Eugène Delacroix features a personification and allegory of Liberty as she leads the citizens of France. The painting commemorates the July Revolution against Charles X of the House of Bourbon, whose rule was viewed as a dictatorship. While the specific event shown in the painting did not literally happen in that exact configuration, it represents the real historical upheaval that united the rich and poor against the Bourbon monarchy to unite France. The revolution successfully removed the kings from power. The composition is structured in a tripartite manner, using a triangular arrangement where rich figures, the central woman, and the poor are connected by implied lines. The woman represents optimism for the future, holding the new French tricolor flag against the backdrop of the sun.
The Oxbow, Slave Ship, and the Valley of Mexico
Thomas Cole's The Oxbow (#109) depicts a bend in the Hudson River and represents the Hudson River School group of artists. The painting is divided between a stormy, emotional side and a peaceful, illuminated side. Cole includes himself in the landscape as a tiny figure, emphasizing that nature is far more powerful than man. This work was produced during the era of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States was destined to expand across the West. The light side represents the original colonies, while the dark, wild side represents the territories yet to be conquered. On the mountain, Cole included Hebrew letters that appear inverted from our perspective but would be readable by God looking down; they translate to "God Almighty," signaling that God approves of American expansion. Interestingly, European audiences tended to dislike the work because of its American political undertones.
Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On) (#111) by J.M.W. Turner depicts slaves being traded and a ship entering a massive storm. To lighten the boat and ensure it could weather the storm, the crew threw sick or rebellious African slaves overboard into the shark-infested waters. Turner created this as a political statement against slavery, highlighting the horror, harm, and death it caused. Historically, a captain could collect insurance money on slaves thrown overboard (lost at sea), but not on those who died of natural causes on the ship. The work is based on the real-life Zong massacre of . The painting uses emotional brushwork to show individuals losing their identity in the water, expressing the horror of the event through Romantic emotion.
José María Velasco's The Valley of Mexico from the Hillside of Santa Isabel (#118) demonstrates cultural diffusion, as the Mexican artist applied American landscape techniques to his own country. Like the Hudson River School works, this painting features tiny people to emphasize the massive scale of the landscape. It captures the national identity of Mexico by including native cacti, clothing, and the high desert. The background includes the Mountain of Tepeyac, where the Virgin of Guadalupe was said to have been found and where a church was eventually built. It also shows the lake where Tenochtitlan once stood, effectively blending American landscape styles with the deep historical and religious roots of Mexico.
Olympia, The Stone Breakers, and the Saint-Lazare Station
Édouard Manet's Olympia (#115) caused a massive controversy by depicting a prostitute or courtesan in Paris. In the painting, she is receiving flowers from a regular lover, and her name, "Olympia," was a common pseudonym for women in her profession. The public was outraged because she was not a goddess but a real, working-class woman. Critics also disliked the lack of naturalism and modeling, as she appeared flat. The inclusion of a Black servant and a black cat (symbolizing bad luck) added to the tension. The painting forces the viewer to confront the reality of the working class and the widespread practice of men cheating on their wives, effectively inflicting guilt on the male viewer who looks at her.
Gustave Courbet's The Stone Breakers (#113) is a foundational work of Realism, portraying working-class laborers who were not typically considered worthy subjects for fine art. The painting carries a political message about the hardship of manual labor, showing workers looking down toward the darkness, overworked and poorly treated. They appear physically stuck among the rocks with only a tiny glimpse of the sky visible. Courbet used earth tones and dark colors to reflect their gritty environment. Tragically, the original painting was destroyed in during the Allied bombing of Dresden, Germany, in World War II. Today, it exists through black-and-white photographs and later color recreations.
Claude Monet's The Saint-Lazare Station (#116) reflects the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution. While some critics disliked the smoky atmosphere and the machinery, as it signaled the ruining of the environment, Monet was fascinated by the effects of light and steam. As an Impressionist, he utilized plein air techniques, meaning he painted outdoors in the open air. This was made possible by the new invention of collapsible paint tubes, which prevented paint from drying out quickly. Monet was one of the first artists to stay on-site to capture a fleeting moment of light and atmosphere in an industrial setting.
The Coiffure, The Starry Night, and The Scream
Mary Cassatt’s The Coiffure (#121) depicts a woman tying her hair up in a style known as a coiffure. Cassatt was heavily inspired by Japanese woodblock prints, which had begun to be traded with the West. As an Impressionist, she focused on depicting everyday people in private moments. The subject is a regular girl doing her own hair; she is not sexualized, which was a significant departure from traditional paintings of nude women. As a female artist, Cassatt provided a unique perspective on the domestic lives of women.
Vincent van Gogh painted The Starry Night (#120) while he was a patient in a mental asylum in Saint-Rémy after he had cut off part of his own ear. Van Gogh struggled with severe mental illness, possibly bipolar disorder, and died by suicide via a gunshot wound shortly after. The painting represents the view from his window, though it is heavily imagined. The swirling, moving sky is often interpreted as a depiction of the "crazy" or turbulent thoughts in his head. The term "lunatic" is historically tied to the influence of the moon on the mind, which is central to this nocturnal scene.
Edvard Munch's The Scream (#122) is a work of Symbolism, representing the internal state of the artist's mind rather than external reality. The figure, possibly inspired by a Peruvian mummy the artist had seen, is shown on a boardwalk in Norway. The painting captures a moment of intense nervous anxiety and mental struggle. The vibrant red and orange colors of the sky may reflect the heightening of air pollution during the Industrial Revolution, specifically the aftereffects of the volcanic eruption of Krakatoa, which caused vivid atmospheric changes globally. This work highlights the dramatic shifts in art as it moved toward expressing psychological distress.
Palace of Westminster, Carson-Pirie-Scott Building, and Seagram Building
The Palace of Westminster (#112), also known as the Houses of Parliament, was designed in the Neo-Gothic style. Situated on the River Thames, it serves as the functional seat of the British government. Although it is a modern building (for the century), it was designed with a "medieval skin" to evoke a sense of nostalgia for the past. The architects wanted to return to a more beautiful, traditional aesthetic in opposition to the perceived ugliness of the Industrial Revolution. Because the King is the head of the Church of England, the building also reflects a sense of theocracy.
Louis Sullivan's Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building (#124) was originally built as a department store. Its construction utilized a steel frame, which was light yet incredibly strong, allowing for the inclusion of ribbon windows that run horizontally across the facade. Sullivan’s philosophy was that "form follows function," meaning the building's appearance should be determined by its use. The entrance is notably ornate, wrapped in intricate carvings to draw the customer in.
The Seagram Building (#147) is a corporate skyscraper in New York that embodies the International Style and the power of capitalism. The Seagram Company, a Canadian liquor corporation, made a fortune during the Great Depression and Prohibition by shipping alcohol to the U.S. and later commissioned this headquarters. Designed by Mies van der Rohe, the building follows the mantra "Less is more" and "God is in the details." It is a monolithic tower that prioritizes function over form, exerting a sense of dominance and architectural purity through its simple, beautiful design.
The Burghers of Calais, Where Do We Come From?, and Mont Sainte-Victoire
Auguste Rodin's The Burghers of Calais (#119) depicts an event from the Hundred Years' War when King Edward III of England offered to spare the city of Calais if six of its leading citizens (burghers) sacrificed themselves. The sculpture captures these men through intense body language and facial expressions, showing their fear and sadness rather than stylized heroism. They are depicted as martyrs, showing a deep sense of nationalism and the painful weight of their decision to sacrifice their lives for their city.
Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (#123) was painted by Paul Gauguin during his time in Tahiti. Gauguin had a highly controversial and egotistical personality; he left Europe because he felt he could not marry young girls there and subsequently abused young Tahitian girls upon his arrival. This massive canvas acts as a cycle of life, moving from the yellow figures representing birth to the darker colors representing death. It incorporates heavy symbolism and religious references, such as an apple which alludes to Adam and Eve. Gauguin viewed this as his ultimate masterpiece and attempted suicide shortly after finishing it.
Paul Cézanne’s Mont Sainte-Victoire (#125) is one of many paintings he made of this specific mountain in France. Unlike the Impressionists, Cézanne was more interested in structure and geometric definiteness than the fleeting effects of light. He used a transition from warm to cool colors to create depth. This focus on breaking the landscape down into geometric components served as a major inspiration for the development of Cubism.
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, The Portuguese, and The Kiss
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (#126) by Pablo Picasso depicts five prostitutes from a brothel on Avignon Street in Barcelona. Picasso, who had a history of sexist behavior, painted women he had personal encounters with. The figures are cut up and seen from multiple angles at once, a technique that prefigured Cubism. He was heavily influenced by African art, specifically masks, which is evident in the scar-like markings on the women's faces. The work was intended to be shocking and unconventional.
Georges Braque's The Portuguese (#130) takes the fragmentation of the human body even further. The subject is a Portuguese guitarist, but the image is broken into tiny pieces, making it significantly less naturalistic than earlier art forms. Braque trained and worked closely with Picasso to develop this style, which aimed to go against the traditional notion of "pretty" or realistic art, focusing instead on the breakdown of form.
Gustave Klimt's version of The Kiss (#128) features an all-consuming love between a couple on a flower-covered precipice. The painting is famous for its intricate patterning: the male figure is defined by rectilinear (angular) shapes, while the female is covered in curvilinear (rounded) shapes. Klimt was influenced by various historical art forms, including Byzantine mosaics, illuminated manuscripts, and Japanese painting. This work's decorative quality even influenced the facade of the Carson, Pirie, Scott building.
Constantin Brancusi’s The Kiss (#129) is a radical departure from traditional sculpture. While most previous statues were smooth and polished, this block-like sculpture is rough and retains the texture of the stone. Brancusi, a Romanian artist working outside the French mainstream, broke from naturalistic traditions to create a cyclops-like image where the two figures share a single eye. He created four versions of this sculpture in the same style, referencing Archaic Greek art in its simplicity and raw form.
Goldfish, Self-Portrait as a Soldier, and Dadaism
Goldfish (#131) by Henri Matisse is a work of Fauvism, a movement characterized by the use of bold, non-naturalistic colors. Goldfish were a common theme for Matisse, representing a sense of peacefulness. He was inspired by his time in Morocco, a French colony, where he observed people staring into fish bowls for hours. The painting uses complementary colors to make the fish stand out and is designed to be aesthetically pleasing to the viewer.
Ludwig Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as a Soldier (#133) reflects the trauma of World War I. After serving, Kirchner was dismissed due to mental illness, and he eventually died by suicide. The painting shows him in uniform with a severed hand, which is a metaphor for his inability to paint and his feeling of being shamed. It highlights his conflicting identities as both an artist and a soldier and serves as a powerful anti-war statement.
Kathe Kollwitz’s Memorial Sheet for Karl Liebknecht (#134) is a woodcut print commissioned to honor the communist leader Karl Liebknecht after his assassination during a protest. As a female artist with communist sympathies, Kollwitz mass-produced these prints as propaganda. The image shows supporters lamenting over Liebknecht, portraying him as a martyr for the cause of communism. This work reflects the political turmoil and the rise of secular ideologies that challenged traditional religion.
Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain (#144) is the quintessential work of Dadaism, a movement born out of the depression and cynicism of the World War I trenches. Dadaists believed all previous art was stupid and sought to make fun of the art world. Duchamp took a standard porcelain urinal, turned it on its side, signed it with a pseudonym "R. Mutt," and declared it art. This concept of "readymade" art—where an artist chooses an object rather than making it—became one of the most influential ideas in modern art history.
Five Year Plan, Improvisation 28, and De Stijl
Varvara Stepanova's Illustration from the Results of the First Five-Year Plan (#137) is a piece of Soviet propaganda. The title refers to Joseph Stalin’s plan to industrialize the largely agrarian Russian economy. The photomontage features Vladimir Lenin, the founder of the USSR, and various symbols of the strength of the worker’s union, such as flags. The work was intended to communicate the success of communism and the elimination of poverty to an audience of illiterate citizens, Western European communists, and rivals like France and Great Britain.
Vassily Kandinsky’s Improvisation 28 (#132) is an early work of Abstract Expressionism. Kandinsky suffered from synesthesia, a condition that allowed him to see colors when he heard music; consequently, many of his titles reference musical compositions. This work is not meant to depict physical reality but rather an emotional state. He was a member of the Blue Rider group. The abstract waves and forms in the painting are thought to represent a deluge or great flood, signaling the end of an old, sinful life and the start of a new spiritual one.
Piet Mondrian’s Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow (#136) represents the Dutch movement De Stijl (The Style). Mondrian wanted to find a "neo-plasticism" that was pure and simple. Inspired by Cubism, he broke art down into its most basic elements: the primary colors and black horizontal and vertical lines. He moved from 3D representation to a completely flat, 2D surface to achieve what he saw as a universal harmony.
The Migration Series, Villa Savoye, and Fallingwater
Jacob Lawrence's The Migration of the Negro, Panel no. 49 (#141) is part of a large cycle of paintings documenting the Great Migration. Black Southerners moved North to escape slavery (historically) and the Jim Crow laws, seeking economic opportunities in industries rather than cotton farming. However, the North still harbored racism, which Lawrence depicts through a scene of silent discrimination and segregation. In this panel, white figures look away from Black figures, showing that Black individuals often lacked a recognized identity in their new homes.
Villa Savoye (#135) by Le Corbusier is a home designed as a "box to live in," embodying the leisure of the machine age. Built with reinforced concrete, the house looks static on the outside but is dynamic on the inside. Le Corbusier prioritized form over function, creating a house that integrated Platonic Greek ideas with modern technology, treating the home itself as a functional machine for living.
Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater (#139) was commissioned by Edgar Kaufmann as a weekend mountain retreat. In contrast to the International Style, Wright believed in organic architecture—where the building follows the site and is fully integrated into nature. The house is built directly on top of a waterfall, with the water flowing underneath the structure, making it a masterpiece of environmental integration.
Post-Modernism, Two Fridas, and Dream of a Sunday Afternoon
Robert Venturi’s House in New Castle County (#152) is a hallmark of Post-Modernism. Venturi, who studied in Rome, famously stated that "Less is a bore," directly challenging the minimalist views of Mies van der Rohe. The house combines simple modern structures with ornate, classical Greek elements, proving that architectural styles from different eras can be mixed together to create something new.
The Two Fridas (#140) by Frida Kahlo explores themes of duality, loss, and mental illness. Painted during her divorce from her abusive husband, Diego Rivera, the two figures represent her different identities. Their hearts are connected by an artery that is being cut, symbolizing her broken heart and the painful loss of her unification with Rivera. The turbulent clouds in the background reflect her distressed state of mind.
Diego Rivera’s Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in the Alameda Park (#143) is a massive mural that acts as a didactic tool to teach Mexican history. Using a technique called horror vacui (fear of empty spaces), Rivera fills the scene with historical figures including himself, Frida Kahlo, and the figure of La Catrina. The mural is divided into three sections covering the conquest of Mexico, the era of the Dictatorship, and the Mexican Revolution. A hot air balloon in the piece represents the hope for Mexico’s future.
The Jungle, Object, and Narcissus Garden
Wifredo Lam’s The Jungle (#142) uses surrealist techniques to depict the reality of Cuba's sugar cane industry. Influenced by the psychological theories of Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud, the work looks like a nightmare rather than a dream. It juxtaposes the reality of Black slaves working on sugar plantations for white men with the American perception of Cuba as a "fun" tropical paradise. This was painted before the rise of the communist dictator Fidel Castro.
Meret Oppenheim’s Object (#138) is a famous Surrealist piece consisting of a teacup covered in fur. The idea purportedly came from a conversation with Picasso, who suggested that anything could be improved by fur. While some critics, like André Breton, gave the work a sexual interpretation, Oppenheim herself did not necessarily intend it that way. The piece subverts our expectations of a domestic object, making it useless and strange.
Yayoi Kusama created Narcissus Garden (#148) as a commentary on narcissism and the self. Consisting of hundreds of mirror balls, the work forces the viewer to look at their own reflection. Kusama, who suffered child abuse and has lived in a mental hospital in Japan, has stated that art is what keeps her alive. The work has been recreated across the world as a commentary on self-obsession.
The Bay, Spiral Jetty, Woman I, and Pop Art
Helen Frankenthaler’s The Bay (#149) utilizes the "soak-stain" technique, where ink or thinned paint is poured onto a canvas on the floor and spread with a squeegee. This creates organic, calming abstract shapes that flow like water. It is classified as color field painting and is meant to evoke the feeling of a natural body of water through pure color.
Spiral Jetty (#151) by Robert Smithson is a work of environmental art located on the shore of the Great Salt Lake. The spiral shape, which mimics the form of certain shells, is made of mud, salt crystals, and basalt rock. The water near the jetty was originally pink due to algae. The point of the work is that the environment is always changing; sometimes the jetty is visible, and sometimes it is submerged or covered in salt crystals.
Willem de Kooning’s Woman I (#145) explores the sexualization of women in the century. The depiction is harsh and aggressive rather than elegant, emphasizing the features men find attractive in a way that mocks both pin-up girl posters and religious imagery like the Virgin Mary. De Kooning intended to expose the underlying tension and misogyny in modern depictions of women.
Andy Warhol’s Marilyn Diptych (#146) is a cornerstone of Pop Art, which focuses on consumer goods and celebrities. Created shortly after Marilyn Monroe’s death in , the work uses the silkscreen technique to mass-produce her image, just as products were made in his studio, "The Factory." As the image is repeated, it begins to fade and the colors become artificial, representing how a person loses their identity and becomes a worshipped, artificial idol through mass media.
Claes Oldenburg’s Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks (#150) was created as a protest against the Vietnam War. It shows a large tube of lipstick mounted on tank tracks, juxtaposing a traditionally feminine, "weak" consumer good with a weapon of war. It was meant to mock the uselessness and ineffectiveness of the American military effort. Both the lipstick and the tank represent mass-produced goods, but combined, they create a funny yet biting political statement.