Abnormal Psychology

Dorothea Dix: A 19th-century American advocate for the mentally ill, Dix worked to improve conditions in asylums and establish more humane treatment for individuals with mental health issues.

William Tuke: An English Quaker who founded the York Retreat in 1796, which provided humane care for the mentally ill and became a model for mental health treatment based on kindness and understanding.

Philippe Pinel – Reforms: A French physician who is known for advocating the humane treatment of mentally ill patients. He is credited with unchaining patients in mental asylums and introducing more compassionate approaches.

Clifford Beers – Author: An American mental health advocate who wrote A Mind That Found Itself (1908), which detailed his personal struggles with mental illness and helped launch the mental hygiene movement.

Benjamin Rush: A Founding Father of the United States and a physician who promoted the idea that mental illnesses were medical conditions. He was a key figure in the early development of psychiatry in the U.S.

Malleus Maleficarum: A 15th-century text by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, often translated as "The Hammer of Witches," which was used to justify the persecution of suspected witches during the Inquisition.

Pre-Greco-Roman Beliefs: Ancient beliefs, often shaped by mythologies, that attributed mental illness to divine punishment, possession, or imbalances in bodily fluids (humors).

Trephination: An ancient surgical practice in which a hole was drilled into the skull, often to treat head injuries or mental illnesses, based on the belief that it released harmful spirits.

The Four D’s of Abnormality: A model used to define abnormal behavior:

• Deviance: Behavior that is unusual or violates societal norms.

• Distress: Behavior that causes significant distress to the individual.

• Dysfunction: Behavior that interferes with daily functioning.

• Danger: Behavior that poses a risk of harm to oneself or others.

Definition of Abnormal Behavior: Behavior that deviates from the societal norms, causes distress, and disrupts the individual’s ability to function.

Freud’s Personality Structure:

• Id: The instinctual part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification.

• Ego: The rational part that mediates between the desires of the id and the constraints of the external world.

• Superego: The moral conscience that reflects societal values and standards.

Humanistic Psychology: A psychological perspective that emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, and the importance of individual experience and growth. Key figures include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Classical Conditioning Terms:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): A natural, automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Behavioral Therapies and Techniques: Psychological treatments based on principles of learning theory, such as classical conditioning (e.g., systematic desensitization) and operant conditioning (e.g., reinforcement and punishment).

Indolamine Neurotransmitter: A class of neurotransmitters derived from the amino acid tryptophan, such as serotonin.

Example: Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite. Low serotonin levels are associated with depression and anxiety.

Phenotype vs. Genotype:

• Phenotype: The observable traits of an individual, such as physical appearance, behavior, and health.

• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual, which influences their phenotype.

Cocaine as a Dopamine Agonist: Cocaine increases the activity of dopamine in the brain, particularly in the reward pathway, by inhibiting its reuptake.

Agonist = drug that increases neurotransmitter activity: A substance that enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by increasing its activity or mimicking its action.

Dopamine Pathway Linked to Movement:

• Mesostriatal pathway: A dopamine pathway involved in regulating movement. It is notably affected in Parkinson's disease.

Amino Acid Neurotransmitter: A neurotransmitter derived from amino acids. Example: Glutamate, which is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

“S” in DSM: Likely refers to the section of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which classifies mental disorders.

DSM-III-R Publication Year: The DSM-III-R (Revised edition) was published in 1987.

DSM-III Publication Year: The DSM-III was published in 1980, marking a significant change in the approach to classification of mental disorders.

MMPI Test Type: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a psychological test designed to assess personality structure and psychopathology.

Construct Validity: The extent to which a test measures the concept it is intended to measure.

Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a test's results when administered at different times.

Projective Test Example: The Rorschach inkblot test is an example of a projective test where individuals’ perceptions of ambiguous stimuli are used to assess their unconscious thoughts and emotions.

Intelligence Test Example: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an example of an intelligence test used to measure cognitive abilities.

Neuropsychological Battery Example: A series of tests (e.g., the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery) used to assess various aspects of brain function and cognitive abilities.

Standard Deviation of IQ Tests: Standard deviation for IQ tests is typically 15, which means most people score within 15 points of the average IQ of 100.

Minimum Symptoms for Panic Attack: At least 4 of the following symptoms: heart palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, feelings of choking, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, chills, or fear of losing control.

Neurotransmitter Activity in Anxiety: Imbalances in neurotransmitters like GABA, serotonin, and norepinephrine are often linked to anxiety disorders.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Criteria: Excessive, uncontrollable worry about various life aspects for at least 6 months, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as restlessness, fatigue, and muscle tension.

Benzodiazepines and Neurotransmitter Target: Benzodiazepines primarily target GABA, a neurotransmitter that inhibits brain activity and induces calming effects.

Panic Disorder Diagnostic Criteria: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks along with persistent concern about future attacks or behavior changes to avoid attacks.

Cued Panic Attacks and Differential Diagnosis: Panic attacks triggered by specific situations or cues, which should be differentiated from other anxiety or medical conditions.

Ataques de Nervios and Cultural Context: A cultural syndrome common in Latin American cultures, characterized by symptoms such as crying, shaking, and a sense of losing control, often triggered by stressful situations.

Interoceptive Conditioning and Panic Disorder: A process in which bodily sensations associated with panic (e.g., heart rate increase) become conditioned stimuli that trigger panic attacks.

Cingulatomy and OCD Treatment: A type of psychosurgical procedure that targets the anterior cingulate cortex, sometimes used for treatment-resistant Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD).

Compulsion Example: Excessive Hand Washing: Repetitive behaviors performed to reduce the anxiety caused by obsessive thoughts.

Illness Anxiety Disorder Criteria: Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness, despite having few or no symptoms.

La Belle Indifference in Conversion Disorder: A phenomenon where a person displays an inappropriate lack of concern about a severe physical symptom, such as paralysis or blindness.

Malingering for External Gain: The intentional production of false or exaggerated symptoms for external incentives, such as financial compensation or avoiding work.

Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another: A condition where an individual falsifies illness in another person, typically a child, for attention or sympathy.

Object Estrangement Experience: A dissociative experience where a person feels detached or disconnected from their body or surroundings.

Fugue and Geographic Escape: Dissociative fugue is a rare condition where an individual unexpectedly travels away from home and is unable to recall important personal information.

Cyclothymia Diagnostic Criteria: A mood disorder characterized by periods of hypomania and mild depression lasting at least 2 years without meeting full criteria for bipolar disorder.

Bipolar I Disorder Features: A mood disorder characterized by at least one manic episode (lasting at least one week) and potentially depressive episodes.

Hypomania Without Depression: A period of elevated mood and energy levels that does not meet the criteria for a full manic episode and occurs without depression.

Duration Required for Manic Episode: A manic episode must last at least 1 week or be of sufficient duration to require hospitalization.

Anhedonia in Major Depressive Disorder: A key symptom of major depressive disorder where an individual loses interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable.

Persistent Depressive Disorder Alternate Name: Dysthymia, a chronic form of depression lasting at least 2 years.

Symptom Count for Persistent Depressive Disorder: At least 2 symptoms, including low mood, low energy, poor appetite or overeating, sleep disturbances, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness.

Single Manic Episode Diagnosis: A diagnosis of Bipolar I Disorder can be made with a single manic episode, even without depressive episodes.

REM Sleep and Depression: Individuals with depression often have disrupted REM sleep patterns, including more frequent and intense REM phases.

Imipramine Drug Class: Tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), used to treat depression by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine.

Wellbutrin’s Unique Side Effects: Wellbutrin (bupropion) is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) used to treat depression and smoking cessation, with unique side effects like increased risk of seizures and potential for weight loss.

ECT and Severe Depression with Psychotic Features: Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a highly effective treatment for severe depression, particularly when it is accompanied by psychotic features or when other treatments have failed.

Operant Conditioning and Purging Behavior: In anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, purging behaviors (such as vomiting or excessive exercise) may be reinforced by feelings of relief from anxiety or weight control.

Control Patterns in Anorexia vs. Bulimia: Individuals with anorexia typically exhibit extreme control over food intake, while those with bulimia often experience a loss of control during binges followed by compensatory behaviors (purging).

Chemical Imbalances in Bulimia: Serotonin and dopamine imbalances are thought to play a role in the development of bulimia nervosa.

Bingeing and Fasting Without Purging: A pattern seen in binge-eating disorder, where individuals consume large amounts of food but do not engage in purging behaviors.

Weight Loss Requirement in Anorexia Diagnosis: A significant weight loss (typically at least 15% below expected body weight) is a key criterion for diagnosing anorexia nervosa.

Effectiveness of Medication in Anorexia Treatment: Medications have limited effectiveness in treating anorexia, but SSRIs and other antidepressants can help manage comorbid conditions like anxiety and depression.

Dyssomnia vs. Parasomnia:

• Dyssomnia: Sleep disorders involving problems with sleep quantity or quality, such as insomnia or sleep apnea.

• Parasomnia: Abnormal behaviors or experiences during sleep, such as sleepwalking or night terrors.

Biological Factor Linked to Insomnia: Dysregulation in melatonin production or other circadian rhythm disturbances can contribute to insomnia.

Types of Sleep Apnea:

• Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA): Blockage of the upper airway.

• Central sleep apnea: The brain fails to signal the muscles to breathe.

Sexual Masochism Disorder Diagnosis Criteria: A disorder where individuals derive sexual pleasure from the act of being hurt or humiliated, and the behavior causes significant distress or impairment.

Frotteuristic Disorder Behavior Example: A sexual disorder involving the act of rubbing or touching a non-consenting person in public places.

Orgasmic Reconditioning Treatment Use: A behavioral therapy technique used in the treatment of sexual dysfunction or paraphilic disorders, where individuals are encouraged to associate sexual arousal with non-deviant stimuli.

Exhibitionism vs. Non-Paraphilic Behavior: Exhibitionism involves the deliberate exposure of genitals to non-consenting individuals for sexual gratification, whereas non-paraphilic behavior does not involve sexual arousal through atypical acts.

Cyproterone Acetate for Paraphilic Disorders: A medication used to reduce sexual drive in individuals with paraphilic disorders by blocking testosterone activity.

Pedophilic Disorder Age Requirements: To meet criteria for pedophilic disorder, the individual must be at least 16 years old and have a sexual attraction to children who are at least 5 years younger.

Medical Causes of Erectile Dysfunction: Conditions like diabetes, heart disease, and neurological disorders can contribute to erectile dysfunction.

Squeeze Technique for Premature Ejaculation: A technique used to treat premature ejaculation where pressure is applied to the penis to prevent early ejaculation.

Use of Dilators for Vaginismus: A treatment technique used to gradually reduce the fear and physical tension associated with vaginal penetration in individuals with vaginismus.

Consensual Atypical Behavior vs. Diagnosable Disorder: Atypical sexual behavior can be consensual and non-problematic; however, a diagnosable disorder involves distress or impairment due to the behavior.

Acetaldehyde Dehydrogenase Enzyme Function: This enzyme breaks down acetaldehyde, a toxic byproduct of alcohol metabolism, into acetate.

Definition and Function of Analgesics: Drugs that relieve pain, such as opioids or NSAIDs.

Heroin Withdrawal Symptoms: Symptoms include anxiety, sweating, nausea, vomiting, muscle pain, and cravings.

Synthetic Hallucinogen Example (LSD): LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is a potent hallucinogen that alters perceptions and can lead to intense visual or auditory hallucinations.

Psilocybin in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Psilocybin is the active compound in certain species of mushrooms that produces hallucinogenic effects.

DXM in Cough Medications: Dextromethorphan (DXM) is a cough suppressant that can cause dissociative and hallucinogenic effects when abused.

Non-Opiate Substance (Cocaine): Cocaine is a stimulant drug that increases dopamine activity in the brain, leading to euphoria, energy, and heightened alertness.

Alcohol as a GABA Agonist: Alcohol enhances the action of GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, leading to calming and sedative effects.

Thiamine Deficiency in Alcohol Use (Wernicke–Korsakoff Syndrome): Chronic alcohol use can lead to thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, which may cause Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, a severe brain disorder.

Benzodiazepines as GABA Agonists: Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of GABA, helping to reduce anxiety and induce relaxation.

Histrionic Personality Disorder and Excessive Explanation: A personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking, often involving exaggerated explanations or behaviors.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder Traits: Traits include a grandiose sense of self-importance, lack of empathy, need for admiration, and a sense of entitlement.

Schizoid Personality Disorder as “Aloof”: Individuals with schizoid personality disorder are typically emotionally distant, prefer solitary activities, and show little interest in forming close relationships.

Schizoid vs. Schizotypal Features in Social Withdrawal: Schizoid personality disorder involves emotional detachment and a preference for solitude, while schizotypal personality disorder includes odd beliefs, eccentric behavior, and social anxiety.

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder vs. OCD: Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)involves a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control, while Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)involves intrusive thoughts and compulsive behaviors to reduce anxiety.

Avoidant Personality Disorder and Fear of Rejection: Individuals with avoidant personality disorder have a pervasive fear of rejection or criticism and avoid social situations because of this fear.

Dependent Personality Disorder and Decision-Making Avoidance: Individuals with dependent personality disorderexhibit excessive reliance on others for decisions, support, and direction, often avoiding personal responsibility.

Atypical Antipsychotic Medication Example: Clozapine is an example of an atypical antipsychotic, used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.

Kraepelin’s Original Term for Disorganized Schizophrenia: Kraepelin originally classified disorganized schizophrenia as hebephrenia. It is characterized by incoherence and disorganized thinking.

Dopamine Levels in Parkinson’s vs. Schizophrenia: Parkinson’s disease is associated with low dopamine levels, while schizophrenia is often associated with excess dopamine activity in certain brain regions.

Residual Schizophrenia Diagnosis: A diagnosis for schizophrenia characterized by the presence of residual symptomsafter an acute episode, but without prominent psychosis.

Catatonic Schizophrenia Features: Features include motor immobility, excessive motor activity, extreme negativism, and mutism.

Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia: These include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized speech or behavior.

Schizophreniform Disorder Duration Criteria: The symptoms must last for at least 1 month but less than 6 months.

Schizoaffective Disorder Diagnosis Pattern: A mood disorder with symptoms of schizophrenia and a mood disorder(depression or mania), where psychotic symptoms occur outside of mood episodes.

Frontal Lobe Test Difficulty in ADHD (Wisconsin Card Sort Test): Difficulty with cognitive flexibility, working memory, and decision-making processes, often seen in individuals with ADHD.

Strattera vs. Stimulants in ADHD Treatment (SNRI): Strattera (atomoxetine) is a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) used to treat ADHD, unlike stimulant medications (e.g., Adderall) that enhance dopamine and norepinephrine activity.

IQ Score Classification for Intellectual Disability: An IQ score of 70 or below is typically used as a cutoff for intellectual disability.

Criteria for Specific Learning Disability Diagnosis: Significant discrepancy between academic achievement and intellectual ability in areas like reading, writing, or mathematics, affecting academic performance.

IQ Test Pattern Differences in Autism (Verbal vs. Visuo-Spatial): Individuals with autism often show a higher visuospatial IQ (ability to perceive and manipulate visual information) compared to verbal IQ (language abilities).