Motivation and Emotion Review
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Emotions can change suddenly, particularly in response to unexpected events.
Example: Immediate emotions experienced during the Boston Marathon bombing on April 15, 2013, included surprise, fear, anger, and sadness.
Questions raised: What are emotions? What triggers them? What factors motivated some bystanders to assist others while others fled to safety?
INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Intrinsic Motivation:
Originates from internal factors.
Actions performed due to personal satisfaction and enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Originates from external factors.
Actions performed to receive rewards or recognition from others.
Definition of Motivation:
Described as the wants or needs that direct behavior towards a goal.
OVERJUSTIFICATION EFFECT
Occurs when intrinsic motivation is weakened, due to the introduction of extrinsic rewards.
Example: Transitioning a hobby (like icing cakes) into a job may reduce intrinsic motivation since now external compensation (payment) changes the perception of the activity.
Research shows that:
Tangible rewards (money) may decrease intrinsic motivation.
Intangible rewards (praise, recognition) may increase intrinsic motivation.
Expectation of an extrinsic reward can diminish intrinsic motivation.
INSTINCT THEORY OF MOTIVATION
William James' Proposal:
Behavior is driven by instincts aiding survival (e.g., maternal protection of offspring, the urge to lick sweets).
Criticism:
The theory has been criticized for neglecting the impact of learning on human behavior.
Examples of human instincts:
Rooting reflex in infants is seen when they search for a nipple.
DRIVE THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Proposed that homeostasis maintenance is crucial for directing behavior.
Key Concepts:
Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs, resulting in psychological drive states.
Emphasis on habits: behaviors that effectively reduce drives are more likely to be repeated.
Hunger, as a drive to eat, is influenced by complex physiological processes.
AROUSAL THEORY OF MOTIVATION
Addresses optimal arousal levels affecting performance.
Performance peaks at moderate arousal; both under and over arousal lead to decreased performance.
Principles:
Underaroused individuals seek stimulation to increase arousal.
Overaroused individuals take actions to lower their arousal levels.
YERKES-DODSON LAW
Established by Yerkes and Dodson (1908), identifies the relationship between arousal level and task performance.
Arousal levels need to be moderate for optimal performance:
Higher arousal is better for simple tasks.
Lower arousal is better for complex tasks.
SELF-EFFICACY & SOCIAL MOTIVATION
Self-Efficacy:
Defined as an individual's belief in their capacity to perform a task.
Albert Bandura proposed that motivation is influenced by expected outcomes of behavior.
Social Motives:
Need for Achievement: Drives accomplishment and performance.
Need for Affiliation: Fuels positive social interactions.
Need for Intimacy: Leads individuals to seek close relationships.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Developed by Abraham Maslow (1943), a model for understanding human motivation based on a hierarchy.
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can be addressed:
Example: A person deprived of basic needs (food, water, shelter) cannot focus on social needs (relationships).
HUNGER & EATING PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS
Hunger Regulation:
Governed by hunger and satiety signals processed in the brain.
Before Eating:
Empty stomach leads to contractions, hunger pangs, and chemical signals to the brain indicating the need for food.
Low blood glucose levels trigger signals for hunger from pancreas and liver.
After Eating (Satiation):
Increased blood glucose signals from pancreas and liver to stop hunger.
Food traveling through the gastrointestinal tract emits satiety signals to the brain.
Fat cells release leptin, a hormone that promotes feelings of fullness.
METABOLISM & BODY WEIGHT
Factors influencing body weight include:
Gene-environment interactions.
Caloric intake versus calories burned during activities.
Metabolic Rate:
Dictated by the amount of energy expended over time and varies among individuals.
Higher metabolic rates burn calories more efficiently.
Regulation of Body Weight:
Set-Point Theory: Each individual possesses a genetically determined ideal body weight that resists changes.
Efforts to significantly alter body weight are counteracted by adjustments in energy intake or expenditure.
Does not account for social or environmental influences.
OBESITY
Classification of obesity based on Body Mass Index (BMI):
BMI 25 - 29.9 = Overweight
BMI over 30 = Obese
BMI over 40 = Morbidly Obese
2/3 of U.S. adults face overweight issues.
Environmental Factors Contributing to Obesity:
Socioeconomic status and physical surroundings impact dietary options and activity levels.
High-crime neighborhoods reduce physical activity and accessibility to healthy foods.
WEIGHT REDUCTION
Effective strategies:
A combination of diets and exercise are recommended.
Bariatric Surgery:
An example includes gastric banding which limits stomach capacity for digestion.
Related Health Risks:
Risks associated with obesity include cardiovascular diseases, stroke, type 2 diabetes, several cancers, infertility, arthritis, liver disease, and sleep apnea.
EATING DISORDERS
Bulimia Nervosa:
Characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting, laxatives, or extreme exercise.
Health consequences may include kidney failure, heart failure, and tooth decay, along with psychological issues like depression and anxiety.
Anorexia Nervosa:
Involves starvation or excessive exercise to maintain below-average body weight.
Affected individuals have a distorted body image and may experience severe health complications including bone loss and possible death.
Associated psychological issues may include anxiety and mood disorders.
SOCIAL UNDERPINNINGS OF EATING DISORDERS
Young women are frequently bombarded with images of thinness from media.
The group most at risk includes Caucasian females aged 15-19 from Western cultures.
Contributing Factors:
Media influence and low self-esteem, alongside other mental health issues.
Life transitions, stress, personal experiences of abuse or bullying, specific personality traits (like perfectionism), and family dynamics can all contribute.
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Physiological Mechanisms:
The hypothalamus is primarily involved in sexual motivation and behavior.
Lesions to specific hypothalamic areas can inhibit sexual behavior, illustrating separation of motivational and behavioral aspects.
Hormones like testosterone play a significant role in sexual behavior and motivation in humans.
KINSEY'S RESEARCH
Conducted by Dr. Alfred Kinsey in the 1940s to fill a gap in sex research.
Findings revealed widespread behaviors previously thought rare:
Both genders exhibit similar interest and behaviors regarding sex, including masturbation and homosexual activities.
Kinsey Scale: Used to categorize sexual orientation based on individual's attractions.
MASTERS & JOHNSON'S RESEARCH
Studied the sexual response cycle:
Excitement - arousal phase (includes erection and lubrication).
Plateau - swelling and increased blood flow.
Orgasm - rhythmic muscular contractions.
Resolution - returning to unaroused state.
Conducted empirical studies measuring physiological changes during sex (e.g., blood pressure, respiration).
SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Defined as an emotional and erotic attraction towards someone, deemed stable rather than a choice.
It is estimated that about 3% to 10% of adults identify as homosexual.
Differences in sexual orientation were once thought to stem from differing socialization experiences, but neurological research indicates biological factors also play a role.
GENDER IDENTITY
Defined as an individual's internal understanding of being male, female, or another gender.
Often aligned with biological sex, but this is not universally the case.
Gender Dysphoria:
Diagnosis for individuals whose gender identity conflicts with assigned sex, lasting at least six months and causing distress.
Transgender Hormone Therapy: A treatment utilizing hormones to align physical traits with gender identity.
CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER
Notable figures:
Chaz Bono: Known for transitioning genders, originally known as Chastity Bono, the child of celebrities Sonny and Cher.
Laverne Cox: First transgender actress to portray a transgender character regularly; also advocates for LGBTQ+ rights.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
Emotion vs. Mood:
Mood:
A prolonged and less intense affective state, does not arise directly from a specific incident.
Emotion:
An intense and conscious experience resulting from specific stimuli involving feelings, physiological arousal, and personal assessments.
COMPONENTS OF EMOTION
Physiological Arousal
Psychological Appraisal
Subjective Experience (shaped by background and culture)
EMOTIONAL REACTIONS IN TODDLERS
Toddlers exemplify rapid emotional shifts, quickly transitioning between vastly different emotional states.
EMOTIONAL THEORIES
James-Lange Theory:
Emotions emerge from physiological arousal.
Example: Seeing a snake triggers increased heart rate → labels it as fear.
Cannon-Bard Theory:
Physiological response and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
Example: Encountering a snake triggers both fear and physiological reactions at the same time.
Evidence: People with spinal cord injuries still experience emotions without physiological feedback, indicating autonomy of emotions from physiological arousal.
SCHACHTER-SINGER TWO-FACTOR THEORY
Proposes emotions arise from combining physiological arousal with cognitive appraisal of situational context.
Example: Encountering a snake leads to physiological reaction and contextual understanding (e.g., danger) leading to fear response.
LAZARUS' COGNITIVE-MEDIATIONAL THEORY
Suggests emotions are produced by immediate cognitive appraisal of stimuli, occurring beforehand and unconsciously.
THE BIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
Limbic System:
Critical in managing emotional responses and memory.
Components:
Hypothalamus: Activates sympathetic nervous system.
Thalamus: Serves as sensory relay, coordinating signals to amygdala and cortex.
Amygdala: Processes emotions and transmits signals to higher brain structures.
Hippocampus: Connects emotional experiences with cognitive processes.
AMYGDALA IN EMOTIONS
Significant focus of research in biological underpinnings of emotions (notably fear and anxiety).
Subnuclei include:
Basolateral Complex: Connects with sensory regions; important for associative learning of emotional experiences.
Central Nucleus: Manages attention and regulates autonomic and endocrine functions related to emotion.
CULTURAL DISPLAY RULES
Standards governing emotional expressions differ across cultures.
Example:
In the U.S., negative emotions (fear, anger, disgust) might be expressed openly, while in Japan, such emotions are often concealed in public settings.
Despite cultural differences, the ability to recognize and display core emotions is largely universal.
UNIVERSAL FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Seven universally recognized facial expressions of emotion:
Happiness
Surprise
Sadness
Fright
Disgust
Contempt
Anger
FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS
Proposes that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.
Evidence includes instances where depressed persons reported reduced symptoms after experimentally induced changes in facial expressions (e.g., Botox for frowning).
Pathway: Emotional stimuli → Facial expression → Physiological response → Emotional experience.