Deontology focuses on the inherent morality of specific actions rather than their consequences.
Derived from the Greek word "deon," meaning "duty," this theory emphasizes our moral duties.
Unlike consequentialist theories, which prioritize outcomes, deontological ethics holds that certain actions are intrinsically right or wrong.
Divine Command Theory
Divine command theory posits that what is moral is defined by God's commands.
The central question posed by Plato’s Euthyphro: "Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?"
Strong Version: Morality is entirely based on God's will. An action is right if God commands it, and wrong if He forbids it.
Weak Version: God’s commands can override moral laws that exist independent of Him (Kierkegaard's teleological suspension of the ethical).
Arguments For and Against Divine Command Theory
Belief Structure: Many adherents to monotheistic religions equate God's will with moral rightness.
Examples among fundamentalist groups (Christianity, Islam, Judaism).
Criticism of Knowledge of God’s Will: Different religious groups often claim contradictory insights into God’s commands. How do we determine which is authoritative?
Moral Arbitrariness: If moral rightness stems solely from God's commands, then theoretically any command, even harmful, could be justified. (Example: The biblical story of Abraham and Isaac).
Human Autonomy: This theory may undermine individual moral reasoning, reducing ethical decisions to mere obedience.
Natural Law Theory
Natural law theory claims that morality is grounded in the natural order and human nature, which are thought to be inherently rational.
Some versions of natural law posit a God-given order, while others argue that moral principles can exist independently of the divine.
Aquinas emphasized that natural law aligns with human inclinations towards basic goods: life, procreation, knowledge, sociability, and aesthetics.
Key Concepts of Natural Law
Moral Absolutism: Certain acts are always right or wrong, and these rules cannot be violated for the sake of greater consequences.
Qualifying Principles:
Principle of Forfeiture: If someone threatens another's life, they forfeit their right to life.
Principle of Double Effect: It is permissible to act in a way that has one good effect and one bad effect, providing certain conditions are met.
Categorical Imperative by Immanuel Kant
Kantian ethics differs from divine command and natural law by insisting moral laws come from individual rationality rather than divine authority or natural order.
Good Will: The only thing inherently good is a good will, and moral actions should be performed out of duty.
Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
Universal Law: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
Respect for Persons: Treat humanity as an end and never merely as a means.
Autonomy: Act as if you were a legislating member of a universal kingdom of ends.
Critiques of Kant’s Ethics
Kant’s system is considered too rigid; it allows no exceptions to moral laws, potentially leading to harmful outcomes.
Emphasis on duty discounts emotional and social dimensions of moral decisions.
Conditional Deontology by W.D. Ross
Ross proposed a version of deontology considering exceptions based on circumstances, making it conditional rather than categorical.
Prima Facie Duties: Duties recognized initially, such as keeping promises or restoring what one has wronged, which must be prioritized when conflicts arise.
Duty evaluation is context-dependent; the strongest duty becomes the actual duty in any specific situation.