Ch. 4 Congress

Introduction to Congress
- The framers aimed to create a legislative branch powerful enough to govern and check presidential power.
- Bicameral legislature design: House of Representatives based on population and Senate based on state representation.
- House of Representatives: closer to the public, smallest constituency (approx. 711,000 per district).
- Senate conceived as a more elite and deliberative body, less influenced by public opinion.
Congressional Elections
- House members serve two-year terms, elections held in even-numbered years.
- Senators originally elected by state legislatures; changed by the 17th Amendment (1913) to popular election.
- Senators serve six-year terms, with staggered elections.
Incumbency Factors
- Incumbents have advantages leading to higher reelection rates:
  - Stronger name recognition.
  - Easier media access.
  - Gerrymandering benefits the incumbent party.

Reapportionment
- Defined as reallocating House seats based on state population changes post-census.
Redistricting
- Involves redrawing congressional district boundaries in line with reapportionment.
- Major composition shifts in the House occur after these processes (notable years: 2002, 2012).
Gerrymandering
- Refers to drawing district boundaries for political advantage.
- Some gerrymandering forms are legal; the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional if it eliminates minority party influence.
- Key cases affecting gerrymandering:
  - Baker v. Carr (1962).
  - Wesberry v. Sanders.
  - Shaw v. Reno (1993).

Partisan Redistricting
- Modern district mapping uses technology to create "safe seats" resulting in more partisan behavior.
- Competitive districts lead representatives to moderate their partisanship.
Majority-Minority Districts
- Composed predominantly of a specific minority group, intended to enhance their election chances.
- Legal unless other redistricting considerations are undermined.
Powers of Congress
- Derive from the U.S. Constitution, including enumerated powers and the Necessary and Proper Clause.
- Power also comes from Supreme Court rulings, media influence, and public opinion.

Formal Responsibilities
- The Constitution explicitly defines legislative powers more than those of other government branches.
Representation
- Congress members advocate for constituents' views but may also represent broader interests.
- Conflicts between policy-making and representation functions are common.
Models of Representation
- Trustee Model: Legislators act on personal judgment.
- Instructed Delegate Model: Legislators vote according to constituents' opinions.
- Politico Model: A combination of both approaches.
Pork Barrel and Earmarks
- Pork Barrel Politics: Appropriations for projects beneficial to constituents.
- Earmarks: Specific expenditure designations within spending bills.

Casework
- Personal assistance to constituents; acting as an ombudsperson to navigate government bureaucracy.
Policy-Making Role
- Central function of Congress; linked to the operational priorities of government agencies.
Oversight Responsibilities
- Process of ensuring executive branch compliance with congressional laws.
- Tools include hearings, investigations, and budget appropriations.
Agenda Setting
- Congress shapes public policy priorities, responding to societal issues and civic engagement.

Societal Conflicts
- Examples of conflicts Congress manages include:
  - Wage increases vs. business policies.
  - Urban vs. rural benefit policies.
  - Funding for seniors vs. children's programs.
House vs. Senate
- House originates tax bills; Senate gives advice on presidential appointments.
- Differences arise from electoral structures and terms affecting member relations with constituents.

Introducing a Bill
- Steps to introduce legislation in Congress differ between the House and Senate.
Committee Review
- Most bills do not progress past committee.
- Chairpersons established via seniority in standing committees, with both houses having defined jurisdictions.
Committee Types
- Select Committee: specific issues.
- Joint Committee: members from both chambers.
- Subcommittee: focused on specific aspects of standing committee jurisdiction.

Committee Actions
- Include agency reviews, hearings, markup, and reporting.
- Discharge petition allows House members to bring bills out of committee.
Floor Debate
- In the House, the Rules Committee sets debate parameters.
- In the Senate, unanimous consent agreements dictate debate terms; filibusters can occur.

Presidential Role
- May sign, take no action, or veto a bill.
- A pocket veto occurs when Congress adjourns and the president does not sign the bill.
Leadership in Congress
- Majority party leaders shape legislative priorities.
- Partisanship influences congressional dynamics despite evolving leadership roles.

Speaker of the House
- Elected by majority party; manages the House and guides legislative strategy.
Majority and Minority Leaders
- Assist the Speaker and lead party strategy, with whips facilitating communication within the party.
Senate Leadership
- Vice President is Senate president; majority leader drives legislative process.

Legislative Context
- Decision-making is influenced by:
  - Political parties and internal relationships.
  - Interest groups providing campaign support and lobbying for legislation.
Partisan Trends
- Increasing party voting and its implications following significant political events.
Colleagues and Staff
- Members trade votes (logrolling) and rely on staff for legislative information.

Presidential Influence
- The president influences congressional decisions through party loyalty and public stances on legislation.
Constituent Influence
- Representatives often cater to constituent perspectives for reelection.
Demographic Representation
- Congress does not reflect the general public's demographics, with notable underrepresentation of women and ethnic minorities, although diversity is improving.

Growth in Diversity
- Record number of women candidates and increasing representation of African Americans and minorities.
Historical Context
- Congress remains less diverse than many democracies but is gradually reflecting more varied demographics.
Conclusion
- Congress has gained broader authority while exhibiting more diversity and partisanship in response to a shifting population and ideological landscape.