Detailed Notes - Migration, Identity and Sovereignty - Edexcel Geography A-level

Economic Systems and Labour Flows

  • Globalisation and Migration

    • In 2014, 230 million people lived outside their country of birth (approx. 3-4% of global population).

    • Advancements in transport networks facilitate easier international migration for work, domicile, and travel.

    • Rise in global trading has prompted a surge in international migration, particularly regional flows (e.g., Mexicans to the USA, Poles to Germany).

    • Uneven economic growth linked to natural advantages (e.g., coastlines, raw materials) can exacerbate migration trends.

  • International Migration Trends

    • 1950-2015: Global population grew from 2.5 billion to 7.3 billion, indicating rising migration.

    • Notable cities for migration shifted from classic destinations (New York, Paris) to developing cities (Mumbai, Lagos).

  • Examples of Migration Policies

    • Japan: Declining population, with 27% aged 65+. Needs 17 million migrants by 2050; however, immigration is restricted due to non-international language barriers and stringent immigration policies.

    • Australia: Selective immigration policies focus on skills; 70% of immigrants fill skills shortages. Young migrants counterbalance an ageing population.

    • Singapore: High percentage of foreign workers (ethnically diverse), TNCs establish regional HQs, and international schools meet the needs of migrants.

Causes of Migration

  • Types of Migration

    • Voluntary Economic Migration: Individuals move to enhance wealth and quality of life.

    • Refugees: Forced relocation due to conflict or persecution.

    • Asylum Seekers: Individuals fleeing for international protection.

    • Environmental Refugees: Moving due to natural disasters or climate change impacts.

    • International Students: Increasing numbers pursuing education abroad.

  • Rationale for Encouraging Migration

    • Seen as a means to optimize economic productivity and fill workforce gaps.

    • Internal migration (rural to urban) often unrestricted; some countries encourage international migration (e.g., EU policies).

  • Rationale Against Encouraging Migration

    • Restricted immigration policies in some nations due to domestic cultural preservation or fears of losing national identity.

    • National Culture: Concerns over ethnic and cultural composition changes due to migration.

Employment and National Security

  • Employment Concerns

    • Governments may promote migration to fill skill gaps, yet locals in high unemployment areas may perceive migrants as competition for jobs.

  • National Security Issues

    • Political controversies arise from fears of security risks associated with unrestricted migration, influenced by recent global events.

  • Barrier to Migration

    • Opportunities to migrate depend on government immigration policies, geographical factors, and individual migrant capabilities.

Nation States and Cultural Unity

  • Definition and Examples

    • A state has sovereignty; nations, like the Welsh or Scottish, may lack full control.

    • States can host multiple cultures and ethnicities, leading to a complex national identity (e.g., USA vs. Iceland).

National Borders

  • Importance of Borders

    • Borders dictate governance and mitigate conflicts; they can be natural (lakes, mountains) or politically assigned without regard for ethnic divisions (e.g., Rwanda).

  • Contested Borders

    • Ukraine and Crimea: Ethnic composition conflict led to Russia's annexation in 2014, continuing tensions.

    • Taiwan: Claims of sovereignty reflect long-standing geopolitical disputes with China.

    • Middle East: Historical borders post-colonialism contribute to ongoing conflicts (e.g., Sykes-Picot agreement).

19th Century Nationalism & Colonialism

  • Colonial Empires

    • European powers built empires from 1500-1900; British colonialism significantly spread influence (e.g., India).

    • Post-WWI decolonization created conflict-prone independent states facing governance challenges.

Post-Colonial Migration

  • Impact of the British Nationality Act (1948)

    • Allowed Commonwealth citizens to settle in the UK, addressing skills gaps and contributing to urban cultural diversity.

Globalisation’s Economic Impact

  • TNCs and Taxation

    • Relocation due to favorable conditions in tax havens impacts local economies negatively by reducing tax revenues.

  • Transfer Pricing

    • TNCs utilize this strategy to avoid high taxes, stirring public outcry and prompting some voluntary tax contributions.

Governance, IGOs, and World Organizations

  • Role of IGOs Post-WWII

    • UN aims to maintain peace, promote sustainable development, protect human rights, and uphold international law.

  • IMF and World Bank Functions

    • Both institutions regulate global finance; require implementing Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) from countries in exchange for aid.

Impacts of IMF and World Bank Policies

  • Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPS)

    • Policies force borrowing countries to reduce government roles and open markets; often criticized for failing to benefit recipient countries.

  • HIPC Initiatives

    • Established to relieve debts of the world’s poorest countries conditional upon transparent governance.

Trade Organizations and Globalization

  • World Trade Organisation (WTO)

    • Promotes fair trade, yet unequal benefits within trade blocs can disadvantage local economies.

Environment and International Agreements

  • Climate Agreements

    • IGOs attempt to mitigate climate change effects, though agreements often lack teeth for enforcement, resulting in slow progress.

  • UNCLOS Achievements

    • Clarifies sea ownership but has heightened tensions over new islands and resource claims (S. China Sea issues).

National Identity Dynamics

  • Government Strategies

    • Education, culture, and sport are tools to promote nationalism.

  • Symbolism of Nationalism

    • National flags, anthems, and political parties reinforce national ideologies.

Challenges to National Identity

  • Foreign Ownership Concerns

    • Increasing foreign ownership in the UK raises national identity concerns; the ownership of key assets can lead to local discontent.

  • Disunity Within Nations

    • Catalonia and Scotland demonstrate rising independence movements, emphasizing national identity issues and resulting conflicts.

Rising Tensions in Emerging Nations

  • Example Cases

    • Brazil: Economic disparity showcased during global events causing public uproar.

    • Russia: Ethnic tensions and regional disparities challenge national unity.

    • India: Poverty disparities causing conflicts among different religious groups needing better economic management.

    • China: Roughly 300 million rural migrants face systemic inequalities in benefit distribution from economic growth.

Characteristics of Failed States

  • Common Traits

    • Weak governance, low life expectancy, social unrest, widespread poverty indicate a failed state. The plight of populations due to continuous warfare worsens migration crises.