The Republican Era: 1800-1824

The Republican Era 1800-1824

The Revolution of 1800

  • Presidential Election of 1800: A bitter campaign between Federalist John Adams and Republican Thomas Jefferson.
  • Jefferson defeated Adams in the Electoral College 73-65.
  • Republican electors also gave Republican Aaron Burr of New York 73 electoral votes, resulting in a tie.
  • The House of Representatives had to choose the president. After 35 rounds of voting, there was still no winner.
  • Alexander Hamilton spoke against Burr which swayed enough Federalists to choose Jefferson, breaking the deadlock.
  • Historical Significance: The election resulted in a democratically elected and bloodless transfer of power.

Small Government and the Barbary War

  • Jefferson sought to simplify the presidency by taking a more casual approach.
  • Small Government: Jefferson aimed to shrink the federal government by:
    • Cutting costs.
    • Reducing taxes.
    • Halting planned expansions to the army and navy.
  • Jefferson took a laissez-faire approach to economics and promoted free trade.
  • Lessening the influence of the Bank of the United States.
  • The US, like many European nations, paid annual bribes to the Barbary States of North Africa (Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli) to prevent pirates from raiding American merchant ships in the Mediterranean Sea.
  • In 1801, Jefferson refused to pay the bribe, which was a large portion of the federal budget.
  • The Barbary States declared war on the US, and Jefferson ordered the US Navy to attack the pirates’ home ports.
  • After four years of fighting, the US captured the cities of Tripoli and Derna, in modern Libya.
  • Jefferson cut costs and signed a peace treaty, but issues over piracy and tribute persisted for years.

The Judicial Branch: John Marshall and Marbury v. Madison (1803)

  • John Adams appointed John Marshall, a staunch Federalist, as Chief Justice.
  • Marshall served on the court for over 30 years and significantly strengthened federal power.
  • Before leaving office, Adams signed the Judiciary Act of 1801, which created new courts and increased the number of federal judges by 16.
  • Adams filled these positions with Federalists at the last moment, angering Republicans, who called them “midnight judges”.
  • He also appointed 42 justices of the peace, and the Senate approved all appointments.
  • The appointments required delivery by the Secretary of State to be valid.
  • Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to deliver William Marbury’s commission as justice of the peace.
  • Marbury v. Madison: Marbury sued Madison, arguing that the Judiciary Act of 1789 authorized the Supreme Court to issue “writs of mandamus” to compel government action.
  • The Supreme Court ruled that Marbury had the right to the appointment but did not have the power to enforce it.
  • The Court held that the provision of the Judiciary Act of 1789 enabling Marbury to bring his claim to the Supreme Court was unconstitutional.
  • The Court stated that Congress could not alter the Constitution through regular legislation.
  • Article III, Section II: Defines the Supreme Court's original and appellate jurisdiction.
  • Judicial Review: This case established the precedent of judicial review, granting the Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
  • John Marshall: “It is emphatically the province and duty of the Judicial Department to say what the law is.”

Jefferson’s First Term

  • Congress did not renew the Alien and Sedition Acts and amended the Naturalization Act to return to pre-change.
  • Jefferson pardoned those convicted under the Sedition Act.
  • Jefferson abolished the Whiskey Tax and reduced the size of the army.
  • The Judiciary Act of 1801 was repealed, ousting the midnight judges but keeping most Federalist-appointed Federal employees.
  • Jefferson limited governmental spending and continued to pay down government debt.
  • Louisiana Purchase:
    • In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in France and sought to re-establish France’s American empire.
    • He coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to France and cut off American access to the port of New Orleans.
    • In 1803, Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans.
    • France’s inability to defeat the rebellion in Haiti led Napoleon to rethink his American strategy and offer all of Louisiana for 15 million dollars (500 million today).
    • Jefferson approved the treaty with France.
  • Expedition of Lewis and Clark: Jefferson wanted to learn about the land, flora, fauna, and Indians of the Louisiana Territory. Between 1804 and 1806, their expedition traveled up the Missouri River, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and reached the Pacific Ocean.

The Napoleonic Wars: Britain vs. France

  • As Napoleon conquered Europe, Britain fought to stop him.
  • US merchants continued to trade with Britain, and the French navy seized American ships.
  • Britain seized American ships that traded with France and, between 1802 and 1811, impressed nearly 8,000 American sailors, including US citizens.
  • In June 1807, the British warship Leopard attacked the US Navy vessel Chesapeake after it refused to stop and be searched. The attack killed 3 and wounded 8.
  • Jefferson responded by signing the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from leaving home ports until Britain and France stopped restricting American trade.
  • US GDP dropped by 5% and exports plunged by 108 million dollars. The Embargo Act of 1807 was incredibly unpopular.
  • Despite this, Republican James Madison was elected as President in 1808, easily defeating Federalist Charles Pinckney.
  • Jefferson repealed the Embargo Act before leaving office in 1809.

Relations with Britain Deteriorate

  • Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: Forbade American trade with Britain and France, but would reopen trade with whichever nation removed trade restrictions first. It would prove to be ineffective in damaging the economies of Britain and France enough to alter their policy toward the US.
  • Macon’s Bill Number Two: Reopened trade with Britain and France but stated that if either nation removed trade restrictions with the US, the US would stop importing goods from the other. France took the offer, and Congress passed a nonimportation act against Britain.
  • War Hawks: Republican Congressmen from the South and West, led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.
    • They were concerned about the US’s reputation over British impressment and pushed for war with Britain.
    • They also blamed Britain for trade restrictions that hurt Western farmers and Southern planters.
    • They were also concerned about the British arming and inciting Native Americans to attack American settlers in the West.
    • They believed war could allow the US to capture Florida and Canada from Britain.
  • Tecumseh’s Confederacy: Shawnee war chief, Tecumseh, and his brother, the prophet Tenskwatawa, urged Indian tribes to unite against American encroachment and reject American goods.
  • William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana, decided on a preemptive strike on the holy village of Prophetstown in the Battle of Tippecanoe.
  • With Tecumseh away seeking the support of tribes in the South, Harrison destroyed the village and inflicted heavy casualties. Tecumseh fled to Canada.

Madison Calls for War with Britain

  • In June 1812, Madison addresses Congress and asks for a declaration of war on Britain.
  • His reasons:
    • British impressment of American sailors.
    • Britain’s failure to recognize American neutrality.
    • Cutting off US trade with foreign nations.
    • Inciting Native Americans to attack American settlers on the western frontier.
  • Congress narrowly voted for war with a 19-13 vote in the Senate and a 70-49 vote in the House. Federalists opposed the measure, calling it “Mr. Madison’s War.”

The War of 1812 (1812-1813)

  • The United States was unprepared to fight the British, having a small army and navy and a deeply divided nation.
  • In the Election of 1812, James Madison defeated De Witt Clinton of New York 128-89, winning his electoral votes from the South and West. Clinton carried his native New York, New Jersey, and the New England states.
  • The US invaded Canada in the west but was quickly repulsed, resulting in British troops counterattacking and taking Fort Detroit in Michigan.
  • Oliver Hazard Perry launched a naval attack on British ships on Lake Erie, giving American general William Henry Harrison access to Canada, where he defeated the British and Indian allies at the Battle of the Thames. Tecumseh was killed during the battle.

The War of 1812 (1814-1815)

  • In 1814, the British defeated Napoleon and could now focus on the war in North America.
  • In August, the British landed a fleet near Washington, D.C. and easily defeated American militia. As payback for American troops burning York (later Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, they then burned the city.
  • The fleet then moved up the Chesapeake toward Baltimore, where they unsuccessfully bombarded Fort McHenry. The Star Spangled Banner was written by Francis Scott Key, who witnessed the event.
  • General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee attacked the Creek Indians who opposed American expansion in the South. At the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in the Mississippi Territory (now Alabama), Jackson won a major victory, opening American expansion in the Southeast.
  • From there, Jackson sought to stop a British invasion of the Mississippi River. At the Battle of New Orleans, Jackson won an overwhelming victory in the largest battle of the war, fought after the peace treaty was signed.

Results of the War of 1812

  • Treaty of Ghent: Ends the war. “Nothing was settled, nothing was gained”. Status quo antebellum but huge effects in the US.
  • Hartford Convention: In 1814, New England Federalists, now a minority party, met in opposition to the war and to propose amendments to the Constitution to counter their loss of political power, Virginia’s hold on the presidency, embargoes and limits that hurt their trade, and to make it more difficult to admit new states to the Union. Some suggested succession.
  • A sharp increase in national pride and unity resulted. New heroes and national symbols emerged: Andrew Jackson, William Henry Harrison, the Star Spangled Banner, and U.S.S. Constitution.
  • The Federalists were on the wrong side of the issue and fell out of favor. With westward expansion, they ceased to be a national party, and with it, the First Party System crumbled. This ushers in the “Era of Good Feelings” and one-party governance. The Federalists would nominate their last presidential candidate in 1816.

The Era of Good Feelings and Economic Nationalism

  • The War of 1812 showed Republicans the benefits of a stronger Federal government, and the party split into two factions, with Henry Clay leading the National Republicans that took up more Federalist-like policies.
  • After the war, Madison pursued more pro-Federal government policies such as creating a new national bank in 1816 (Second Bank of the United States) which supplanted state banks that issued too much currency and lent too generously.
  • The Bank would control state banks and issue a national currency. The First Bank of the United States’ charter expired in 1811.
  • The Tariff of 1816 was to protect American manufacturers from a flood of post-war inexpensive British goods.
  • National Republicans tried to implement a Federal infrastructure plan, but it was vetoed by Madison, who took a strict interpretation on the issue, leaving internal improvements up to states. States then granted charters to private companies to build roads.

Major Decisions of the Marshall Court: Federal vs. State Power - Judicial Nationalism

  • Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816):
    • Lord Fairfax, a British nobleman living in Virginia, died and left a large tract of land to his nephew, Denny Martin.
    • During the American Revolution, Virginia passed laws allowing the state to confiscate Loyalist property.
    • In 1789, the state of Virginia voided the transfer and confiscated the land.
    • Martin claimed that under the Treaty of Paris (1783) and Jay’s Treaty (1795) protected the property interests of British subjects living in the US were protected.
    • The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the Virginia law, but the US Supreme Court reversed the decision upon appeal, stating that Federal treaties supersede state law.
    • This case establishes the US Supreme Court as the court of final appeal in state court cases involving Federal laws and treaties and the importance of a single interpretation of the Constitution and Federal law.
  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
    • The Second Bank of the United States set up state banks that competed with state-chartered banks.
    • In response, the state of Maryland imposed a tax on notes issued by the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank of the US.
    • The Second Bank refused to pay, claiming the tax infringed upon national powers.
    • Maryland claimed that the Second Bank was unconstitutional and that it had the right to tax activities within its boundaries.
    • The Marshall court ruled 9-0 in favor of the Bank, deciding that the Bank was necessary and proper and constitutional.
    • States cannot tax federal institutions since “the power to tax is the power to destroy.”
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824):
    • In 1815, Aaron Ogden operated a steamboat ferry between Elizabeth, New Jersey, and New York City as a monopoly under a license from the state of New York.
    • His former partner operated another steamboat on the same river in 1820 with a license obtained from Congress.
    • The court decided in favor of Gibbons because Congress has the right to regulate interstate commerce, which includes transportation.

Major Decisions of the Marshall Court: Property Rights and Contracts

  • Fletcher v. Peck (1810):
    • In 1795, the state of Georgia granted a large tract of land to the Yazoo Land Company.
    • In 1796, it was revealed that the legislature received bribes from the Yazoo Land Company, and the land grant was revoked.
    • In 1800, John Peck acquired a plot of land that was once part of the original legislative grant.
    • In 1803, Fletcher purchased the plot of land from Peck, claiming the previous land sales had been legitimate.
    • The US Supreme Court ruled that the initial land grant was a contract that could not be invalidated by the state of Georgia.
    • The decision limited state power, protected property rights, and promoted economic investment.
  • Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819):
    • Dartmouth College was founded in 1769 as a private institution by a royal charter from King George III.
    • In 1816, the state of New Hampshire passed legislation converting the school into a public university.
    • Citing Fletcher v. Peck, the college sued, arguing that the original charter was a contract that could not be altered by the state.
    • The Marshall court agreed with Dartmouth.

Nationalist Foreign Policy of Monroe’s Presidency

  • In the Election of 1816, Republican James Monroe defeated Federalist Rufus King 183-34.
  • Monroe is the last of the “Virginia Dynasty” of presidents and the third Secretary of State in a row to win the presidency.
  • Monroe’s Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was instrumental:
    • Improved relations with Britain: the nations agreed to a policy of disarmament on the Great Lakes and the 49th parallel as the border between the US’s Louisiana Purchase and British Canada.
    • The Purchase of Florida through the Adams-Onis Treaty in 1819.
      • In the 1810s, Americans in Georgia and Seminole Indians in Florida engaged in cross-border raids against one another, and many runaway slaves had sought refuge in Spanish Florida.
      • In 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun ordered Andrew Jackson to stop the raids, but Jackson not only burned Seminole villages but also captured Pensacola, Florida, and removed the Spanish governor.
      • Spain objected, but Adams argued Spain couldn’t govern Florida and agreed to “sell it” for 5 million dollars.
  • Monroe Doctrine: By 1824, Spain’s colonies in Central and South America had revolted and established independent nations.
    • The position of the United States was that it would view any attempt by European nations to recolonize these new nations or expand current colonies as a threat.
    • In return, the US promised to not meddle in the affairs of European countries. The effect was that the Western Hemisphere would fall under the US’s diplomatic leadership.