5f Midterm Units/Main topics

Renaissance

Characteristics:
- Rebirth of classical/Greco-Roman ideas and culture.
Humanists:
- Intellectual movement renewing belief in individual values and power through classical education.
- Secular focus.
Petrarch: "Father of the Renaissance"
- Promoted classical text study and vernacular use.
- Critiqued the Middle Ages as a period of darkness.
Mirandola: Wrote “Oration on the Dignity of Man”
- Human beings are unique with free will, able to ascend to divine heights through knowledge and virtue.
- Individual power is God-given for rational thought and action.
Lorenzo Valla:
- Textual analysis proving the Donation of Constantine was a forgery.
- Attacked the papacy's temporal power claims.
Thomas More:
- Utopia:
  - Idealistic view of a largely classless society.
  - Communal ownership instead of private.
Civic Humanists:
- Educated men should be active in local politics.
- Leonardo Bruni:
  - Argued ancient Rome's republicanism was the best government form.
  - Shift from feudalistic government structure.
- Castiglione: Civic humanist focused on social behavior.
  - Courtier: Instructions for Renaissance men on proper behavior:
    - Educated.
    - Able to hold intelligent conversations.
    - Skilled in sports, dance, poetry, and warfare.
- Machiavelli: Focused on strong leadership/political behavior.
  - The Prince:
    - Political realism, not moral questions of right and wrong.
    - The good of the state over subject wants, regardless of sacrifices.
    - Better to be feared than loved.
    - Focused on achieving and maintaining power.
    - Doing what's best for the state.
    - Contrast to previous philosophers (like Plato) who focused on ideal rulers with justice/virtue.
Italian Art Characteristics:
- Geometric Perspective: 3D look.
- Naturalism.
- Idealism: Humans viewed in idealistic form with muscles and proper stances.
- Individualism: Glorifies human potential; artists signed paintings.
- Michelangelo: Statue of David (individualism; idealistic form of man).
- Raphael: School of Athens.
- DaVinci: The Last Supper.
Patronage of the Arts:
- Wealthy families and the Church commissioned art to glorify themselves.
- Sistine Chapel ceiling - Michelangelo
Medici Family:
- Established the banking industry in Italy (also the Fugger family).
- Rise of money economy and alliances with monarchs increased political rule.
Vernacular:
- National languages, languages of the people.
Printing Press:
- Johannes Gutenberg invented the movable type printing press.
  - Encouraged vernacular development, leading to national cultures/nationalism in the 18th-19th centuries.
  - Increased education.
  - Protestant Reformers used it to spread ideas, spurring Protestantism's establishment.
Secularism:
- Non-religious.
Individualism:
- Renewed belief in the values and power of the individual (freedom or free will).

Northern Renaissance

Goal: To be more educated and secular.
Characteristics: More religious/Christian.
- Emphasized education and classical Latin, but focused more on social reforms (the Church).
Christian Humanism:
- Cultivated the classics (like Italian humanists).
- Focused on sources of early Christianity, Scriptures, and Augustine's writings.
- Believed in human potential to reason and improve.
- Through classical education, people could gain inner piety to reform society and the Church.
Erasmus:
- Christianity should guide daily life, not just be a system of dogmatic belief.
- Inner piety over external forms of religion.
- Reform the church through enlightened education and common-sense criticism.
- In Praise of Folly: Satire undermining corrupt political/social institutions and criticizing religious hierarchies.
  - Main idea: Foolishness brings happiness and keeps people productive.
N. Renaissance Art Characteristics:
- Individuals and everyday life objects are more detailed.
- Sense of realism, not idealized human form; religious, reform the church from within (contrast with Italian).

New Monarchs

Goal: Centralize power.
Characteristics:
- Reduce the power of the Nobility/Clergy through taxation and a stable military/bureaucracy.
- Create a Bureaucracy
  - Bureaucracy: paid by the king replacing advisors (nobles).
- Court system (Star Chamber):
  - Bring charges and impose fines.
- Establish religious uniformity.
- Remove/control religious institutions.
King Francis I:
- Concordat of Bologna:
  - Signed with Pope Leo X.
  - Gave Francis control over church appointments/administration; also benefited the Church financially.
Henry VIII:
- Act of Supremacy:
  - King is head of state, not the Pope; Head of the Anglican Church.
  - Believed in 4 sacraments, not 7.
- Passed the Treason Act
  - Punishable by death to refuse to recognize the Church of England as the state religion.
Elizabeth I:
- Book of Common Prayers
  - Personal devotional reflecting her Protestant faith, blending religious and political themes to emphasize personal piety and national unity.
- Elizabethan Settlement:
  - A compromise between English Catholics and Protestants.
  - Provided more opportunities for Catholics.
Henry VII:
- Star Chamber
  - Independent court of justice where high-profile defendants could be tried without using influence to escape justice.
Ferdinand & Isabella:
- Raised revenue through national taxes on property sales.
- Established an elaborate bureaucracy for tax collection and justice.
- Completed the Reconquista, driving Muslims and Jews from the Iberian Peninsula and establishing Catholicism as Spain's official religion.

Exploration

Goal: Increase wealth of the nation.
Motives:
- God:
  - Missionize and civilize Indigenous populations.
- Gold:
  - Establish colonies/trading routes to increase wealth (silk, spices).
- Glory:
  - Individual and country to be known (popular).
Means (through technology):
- Navigation:
  - Compass, astrolabe.
- Cartography:
  - Accurate coastline charts with distances.
- Military technology:
  - Guns/Gunpowder; military arms.
  - Boats; Sails.
Effects:
- Subjugation and destruction of Indigenous populations through forced labor and disease.
- Population growth in Europe.
- Economic and political rivalries between European countries.
Mercantilism:
- Characteristics:
  - State control of the economy (absolutist).
  - Emphasis on wealth accumulation (gold/silver) through a favorable balance of trade and government regulation.
  - Exports over imports.
  - Establishment of colonies to exploit resources.
- Colbert
Encomienda system:
- Explanation:
  - Spanish settlers collected tribute and used native labor in exchange for "protection."
  - Forced labor, religious conversion, disease, and warfare killed over 80% of the Indigenous population.
- Effects:
  - Exploitation and harsh conditions for Native Americans.
  - Decline in population due to overwork and disease.
  - Establishment of the slave trade to support the plantation system/economy.
Treaty of Tordesillas:
- Between Spain & Portugal/Negotiated by the Pope.
- Meant to stop two Catholic countries from going to war (promote Catholic unity).
- Brazil to Portugal, everything else to Spain.
Columbian Exchange:
- A process of transferring plants, animals, microbes, and people across the Atlantic.
- Sugarcane and coffee to the New World; potatoes and tomatoes to the Old World.
Effects:
- Increased population in Europe.
- Displacement and exploitation of native populations.
Old vs. New Imperialism:
- (Old) Portugal - economic trading only.
- (New) Spain - Colonization
Asiento:
- Need for slaves to work in the Plantation System due to indigenous population decline (disease and maltreatment).
Joint Stock Companies:
- Explanation:
  - Licensed by the government.
  - Individuals pool money together to enter the lucrative trading economy.
  - (Major EFFECT) Led to expanding wealth and a wealthy merchant middle class (bourgeoisie).
  - Leads to a money-oriented economic system.
  - Cause = availability of credit through national banks (Bank of Amsterdam).
- Examples:
  - Bank of Amsterdam
Price Revolution:
- Steady rise in prices (inflation) caused by population growth (hurts the poor).
- Led to the establishment of a money-oriented society.
- Middle class grows/Longer lives.
Western vs. Eastern Europe:
- Western Europe took advantage and increased their status.
  - Peasants were freed from serfdom.
- Eastern Europe saw their already marginal existence threatened further.
  - Still confined under serfdom.
Dutch Golden Age
- Dutch Realism:
  - More free.
  - Expressed contentment in the enjoyment of the good things in life.
  - Light/shadows, natural landscapes, etc.
- Middle-class wealth:
  - Merchants.
  - Artisans and skilled craftsmen
  - Shopkeepers.
- Fueled by the Protestant work ethic and cheap energy (windmills).
Trade and Banking
- Dutch East India Company:
  - First multinational corporation financed by shares in the stock market.
  - Allowed trading companies to increase capital/decrease risk.
  - Dominated Europe in the spice trade.
- Bank of Amsterdam:
  - Dominated the Indian Ocean; profits kept by the bank.
  - A monument to the massive economic shifts toward a money economy.

Reformation

Causes:
- Church abuses:
  - Indulgences: buying grace/paying to get into heaven.
  - Simony: buying and selling church offices.
  - Nepotism: giving church offices to family members instead of qualified officials.
Effects:
- War (Protestants vs. Catholics):
  - Peace of Augsburg: Ends war, princes can dictate whether to be Lutheran or Catholic.
    - Leaves the Calvinists out (30 Years War).
- Permanent division of Christianity (Protestants vs. Catholics).
- New interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice.
- Catholic Reformation.
- Spread of literacy:
  - Translation of the Bible into the vernacular.
- Secular thought/eventually the Enlightenment.
Charles V:
- HRE - Opposed Luther.
- Wanted to keep the Holy Roman Empire Catholic.
- After the Diet of Worms:
  - Edict of Worms: Opposed Protestants.
Martin Luther:
- Wrote the 95 Theses (a list of grievances against the Catholic Church).
- Everyone can worship God equally. God is accessible to all faithful.
- God, Faith, Bible
- Sola Scriptura (Bible only):
  - New interpretations of church doctrine and practice.
  - Salvation through faith alone (Sola Fide).
  - Priesthood of all believers - “You are your priest”.
  - Only two sacraments.
  - God, Faith, Bible
German Peasants Revolt:
- Cause/Effect:
  - Opposition to heavy taxes and duties on German serfs.
  - Believed Luther would support them, but he didn't.
    - Luther Needed the Aristocracy to implement reformation and keep him safe from HRE
  - Martin Luther Supported Princes
    - Believed it was their duty to put down all revolts because they were ordained by God and given authority to maintain the peace.
    - Called for the death of all revolutionaries
John Calvin:
- Predestination:
  - God already chose who will go to heaven; good works don’t get you into heaven; the elect.
  - Wealthy people were the elect.
  - Believed church and state should be the same (Theocracy).
  - Refused to subordinate to the state.
Anabaptists:
- Characteristics:
  - An isolated group of Christians who only follow the teachings of the Bible and refuse civil laws.
  - Complete separation of state and church.
  - Hated by Protestants and Catholics.
  - New interpretation
    - Adult baptism
Henry VIII
- Wanted to make England under Catholicism
- rejected Luthers theses and earns the Title of faith from the Pope
- Needed divorce from his many wives but the pope wouldn't give it to him so he formed the church of England (Anglican-Church
  - Act of supremacy
Elizabeth I
- Protestant
- Elizabethan settlement
  - Stops executing people based on religion

Wars of Religion

Dutch Revolt/80 Years War (Cause & Effect):
- Causes:
  - Religious Conflict; Catholics (Habsburg rulers) Enforced religious uniformity (opposite of religious Pluralism)
  - Political Tensions: Philip II of Spain centralized power and imposed Spanish officials and policies on the Dutch.
  - Economic Grievances: The Dutch resented heavy Spanish taxation.
- Effects:
  - Divides the low countries between the Dutch Republic (northern Protestants/Calvinists) and Belgium from the south (Catholics).
  - Dutch win as a result.
  - Dutch Republicans
French Wars of Religion (Cause & Effect):
- Causes:
  - The Reformation
  - Factional Disputes (political)
    - Huguenots as French Calvinists led to factions, like the houses of Bourbon/Guise, began to fight for power.
  - Weaken Monarchy
    - The Death of Henry II (Valois) of France without an heir
  - External intervention
- Triggering Event:
  - Massacre at Vassy
    - Catholics attack Protestants congregations
- St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre:
  - Margaret of Valois (Catholic) and Henry of Bourbon (Huguenots/Protestants) married (cause).
  - Reconcilement of Catholics and Huguenots (effect).
  - At the night of the marriage, one of the leaders of the Bourbons was murdered by Henry of Guise.
  - Led to the massacre of Calvinists.
  - Protestants win
- War of 3 Henrys:
  - Fight between monarchs; Bourbon (winners) VS Valois
- Henry IV: Converted to Catholicism.
  - Edict of Nantes (passed by Henry VI, politique):
    - A religious treaty to the Huguenots that provided limited religious diversity.
    - Religious protections.
    - New opportunities:
      - Access to universities, public offices, and rights to maintain towns for self-protection.
30 Years War (Cause & Effect):
- Cause and effect:
  - Religious tensions:
    - Ferdinand II re-established religious uniformity in the Holy Roman Empire.
  - Political/territorial ambitions:
    - Denmark/Sweden/France go against HRE.
  - France supported the protestants (effect)
  - HRE is left with little economic/political power (effect)
- Politique:
  - Public figures who placed politics before religion and believed that no religious truth was worth civil war.
  - Examples:
    - Cardinal Richelieu: He funded Sweden to fight because he was more concerned with maintaining a balance of power.
    - Elizabeth the First: Her policies.
    - Henry IV: Edict of Nantes.
- Immediate Spark:
  - Defenestration of Prague
- Effects:
  - Decline of HRE.
  - Rise of France.
  - Peace of Westphalia (1648):
    - Calvinist, along with all German states, had religious freedom.
    - Religious and Politics were now separate.
    - Established the idea of the balance of power.

Catholic Reformation

Catholic Reformation (Reform/Reaffirmed Catholic Doctrine and Belief)
Council of Trent:
- Meetings
  - Condemned bad behavior within the church and reinforced hierarchy and loyalty to the Pope
  - Reformation:
    - Seminaries are established to educate priests
    - stopped indulgences and Simony
    - Established the Order of Ursuline nuns
      - Education of girls
  - Reaffirmation -through violence
    - *The Catholic church upheld that both the Bible and church traditions were sources *of religious truth countering the Protestant belief in sola Scriptura
    - Inquisition: they have the job and power of it, rooted out the hierarchy, condemned books
    - Sola Scriptura (scripture alone; Bible)
    - Transubstantiation
      - The ability of the priest to transform bread and wine into body and blood of Christ
    - Unlike the Protestants who emphasized salvation through faith alone, the catholic Church reaffirmed that both faith and good works were necessary for salvation
Jesuits/Society of Jesus: founded by Ignatius of Loyola
- Militant order of the Catholics
  - Supported education within the church
  - Created monasteries to educate kings
Ursilin Nuns
- Nuns had to be Educated
Index of Prohibited Books
- A list of books the Catholic Church deemed as heretical or a threat to its teachings and faith(condemned, burnt)

Baroque, Mannerism Art, Dutch Realism, Neoclassicism

Baroque
- Glorify the Catholic Church
- Prama, movement, emotions
- Religious scenes
Baroque
- Glorify the Catholic Church
- Prama, movement, emotions
- Religious scenes
Mannerism Art
- Complex composition, distortion, and elongated human figures
- Got rid of classical styles/3D
Dutch Realism
- More Free
- Expressed their contentment in the enjoyment of the good thing in life
- light/shadows, natural landscapes, etc.
Neoclassicism
- Focused on light hearted themes of romans and the transitory nature of life

Constitutionalism

Causes/Effects/Characteristics:
- Characteristics:
  - No taxation without consent of the people
  - Checks and balances
  - Limited government
  - Sovereignty resides in the people
  - Capitalism
  - Representative bodies
- Cause:
  - Overpowerment of king over the people
  - Magna carta
  - Intellectual ideals of freedom and individualism
- Effect:
  - Separation of powers
  - Individual rights
  - Kings power is held upon law
  - Consent of the people
James I
- Divine Rights of Kings, which put him at odds with Parliament(law-making body of England)
  - True law of free Monarchs
- Rebuffed Puritans and made peace with Spain
- People think he is Catholic and so became suspicious of him bringing back Catholicism
Charles I
- Stops working with Parliament
- Tried to tax without Parliament consent(ship money)
- Sign the Petition Rights(limited Royal power, but ignores it)
  - Arrests parliament members and
  - Parliament relized its war, and so allies with Scotland wand declares war.
English Civil War
- Cause
  - Parliament vs Monarchy| Charles going against parliament and ruling by absolutism
  - Parliament wins due to New Model Army, led by Oliver Cromwell(protectorent)
- Effect
  - Result in Charles I being executed/beheaded
  - Established Interregnum(period without a king)
Oliver Cromwell
- Creates the New Model Army
- During the Interregnum, England is run like a military dictatorship by Cromwell(appioned by parliament)
  - Dies - so they invite James II(restoration)
Glorious Revolution
- Effects
  - Brings William and Mary of Orange(had the ruled with constitutional monarchy
  - They sign and agree with the English bill of rights
English Bill of Rights
- Limits royal authority
- Creates constitutional or limited Monarchy
- No taxation without Parliament Consent
- Parliament has power of the purse - Economic(money)
- Freedom of Speech
- Free elections
- Absolutism loses in england

Absolutism

Jean Bodin:
- Came up with Absolutism - centralize power taken from nobility and church
- King has sovereign power
Jacques Bousset:
- Divine Rights:
  - Given from God
  - Kings were responsible to no one but God
Louis XIV:
- Goals: expand to borders/frontier of France
  - Fails
- Fronde – a noble rebellion when he was young. He thinks he needs to control nobles so they don’t do that again
  - Cardinal Mazrin - suppressed the Frondes
  - Cardinal Richelieu
    - Resigned nobles rights, partially revoked the Edict of nantes, created an environment to increase the King's power
    - Deployed Intendants
      - Effect:
        Caused him to completely get rid of the powers of nobility from government
- Intendants
  - Government officials that are the ears and eyes of the King
  - Spied on the Nobility and people
- Palace of Versailles (social)
  - Used to impress everyone, including the Nobles, and keep them occupied.
- Edict of Fontainebleau (religious uniformity)
  - Fully revoked the Edict of Nantes (Religious plurality)
    - Caused the Huguenots to migrate out of the country
- Jean Baptiste Colbert - finance minister (mercantilism)
Louis Wars:
- causes/effects
  - War of the League of Augsburg
    - Lost:
      - Economic depression and famine in France
      - Treaty of Ryswick
        Give up most of the territory gained except Alsace-Lorraine
  - Dutch War
    - Win:
      - Gained French Comte(land)
  - Spanish Succession:
    - grandson of Louis named king of spain after Charles ll
    - Cause = wanted religious and political uniformity, and a bourbon on Spanish throne
    - Goal = Prevent Bourbon Hegemony that would disrupt the European balance of Power
    - Effects (Peace of Utrecht)
      - French power decrease
        Starts the economic decline leading to the French Revolution
      - Bourbon will be king in Spain and France, but countries will not be united ever
      - Britain on the rise – gained
        Gibraltar
        Powerful navy
The “SUN KING”
Peter the Great
- Westernize Russia under absolutism:
  - St. Petersburg - Window on the West:
    - New capital that had more WESTERN ORIENTATION
  - Church Reforms:
    - Abolish head of Orthodox church (Catholic)
    - Replace with Holy Synod:
      - Linked to the state (Peter)
  - Economic Reforms:
    - Ship building, mines
    - Mercantilism (see Louis)
  - Military Reforms:
    - Elite military units
    - Brought officers from the West
    - Soul Tax
  - Political/Administrative:
    - Table of Ranks
    - Meritocracy
    - Create a government force of officials (similar to Intendants)
    - Tax on Boyars(Russian Nobility)
  - Education Reform:
    - Educate military
    - Establish schools of medicine, navigation, and math.
  - Women's Reform:
    - Free will to marry
    - No veils (traditional)
    - Women included in social gatherings
- Obtain a warm water sea port (ice free)
  - For trade reasons (ports that are open all year)
  - Great Northern War (Sweden)
    - Russia wins
    - Sweden becomes a lesser power
  - St. Petersburg:
    - Capital
    - Window to the West
    - Can trade with Europe
Partition of Poland
- Sejm
  - Law making body
  - Elect King(weakness of Poland)
  - Liberum Veto
    - One vote can eliminate all
Balance of Power
- Balance in power of each country
- Prevents any one country from dominating others
- Helps maintain peace and stability

Agricultural Revolution

Characteristics:
- All SET
  - Science:
    - [old] 3-fields crop rotation
    - [new] 4-fields crop rotation
    - Selective breeding
  - Entrepreneurship:
    - [old] Common Pasture(shared fields/crops/animals)
    - (new) Enclosure
  - Technology:
    - [old] throwing seeds on the fields
    - [new] seed drill (puts seed where it belonged)
Effects:
- An increase in Agriculture production; more food
- Increase of population
Putting-out system
- Wealthy merchants → raw material → rural farmers → processed met. Into finished products → Merchants collect and sell products
Enclosure
- People mark individual fields and closed them

Scientific Revolution

Ptolemy
- Came up with Geocentrism; logic no expiranmnet
Galileo
- Invented the telescope
- Used it to look at the moon(of Jupiter and earth); saw craters and mountains on the moon; introducing the concept that other planets are just like the earth, earth is no longer the center of the universal(effect)
- Condemned for believing and advocating for Copernicus's way
- Catholic Churches document Challenged
- Supported Heliocentric
  - His math and telescope helped clarify and support his belief
Johannes Kepler
- Modifies the heliocentric - came with elips
Copernicus
- Advocated for a heliocentric conception of the universe
  - the universe contained of 8 spheres with the sun at the center
- Rejected the Geocentric proposed by the Church and Aristotle
Heliocentrism
- The sun was at the center of the universe
Newton
- Universal Law of gravitation
  - Connects to humans (if one person does bad, the other is attracted to do so as well, kinda like the law)
- Newtonian
  - Deism - Supreme Being(God) made the universe as a machine, with its own rules and laws and just watched it play. Doesn't intervene with the universe
- Practiced Alchemy
Bacon
- Came up with Inductive reasoning
  - Repeated observations → generalize repeatedly observed phenomena → a probable conclusion
Descartes
- Supported deductive reasoning
  - Premise observation → another premise observation → Conclusion
William Harvey
- Overturned Galen's idea about the circulation of blood
  - Through experimentation, he discovered that the circulatory system was one integrated hole
Scientific Method
- A combination of Deductive and inductive reasoning in testing hypothesis and developing theories

Enlightenment

Causes
- I. Renaissance; Humanism, inquiry, criticism, and secularism
- II. Scientific revolution: reason, inquiry, criticism of religion and superstition, empiricism, or logic
Effects
- Shift in people's relationship with the government
  - I. ask for more equality and participation
  - II. If governments don't respond, lead to a revolution
  - III. Enlightened despots utilized ideas to control people
Locke
- Born with Tabula rasa Blank mind
People were molded by their Environment experiences they receive through their since of the surrounding of world
* Changing Environment, Submitting people to proper influence = new population and society*
Natural rights:
You are born with these rights *
Life, Liberty, Property
*
Social Contract
People will follow rational laws and the governments should protect the individuals natural rights; if those they don’t then we can overthrow the government and replace it
*
Government rule with the Consent of the people Freedom of the people;
* Secular in newter separation of Church and State*

Rousseau

balance of Individual liberty / governmental authoritative authority
Private power created a problem Others think that itsreligion that causes the problems_
Advocated for Participatory democracy
Where people would be able to vote*

The of General

Social Contract - tyramy of the Major*
Agreed to be governed the statement Whas best for the is best for everyone* View women as naturally as men
ROmanticisin
Balance emotion and logic
Religious Toleration
*
Opposed Royal absolutousm lacke Relegions Toleratiou and the Freedom Though*
* First to Practice Delsin
Women
Toleration
Women are couple is men
*
Diderot

Patronaged to Catherine the greatest *
Condemed Chustinity as Pumatical and unvesonalile*
Editors of Eacyclopedia

This is definide atheism as some one who knows and constally neyect his esstende
Balniving there was no God that anything that could he Known was andendood not thy Revilatio hut through Human senses

elightened persectiveNor church nor state controlled

The individuals atlacked Saperstitions
*
Adrocated for social lagal of political impoovements the
elief on Women Woman't it different
During the tima Religos Emphions mavel from Putlic Bolonong ta Brivar Beleping*
Montesquieu
separatio of pawel /checks and the Limis on power Supports Englands
Canstimional aganest

SOCIAL CONTRACT

Entera In contract with then government and the govement should protect the individuals netmal rights
&
If government became people have the right to government and
f
The entre socieky to de governed the general will peple abibe of their ound what best everyone*
*accomplished by being forced
*Libeity accomplisled by the doing for all