Events in the Gulf, c.1970-2000
Why did events in the Gulf matter, c.1970-2000?
Post-WWI Middle East Redrawn:
The Ottoman Empire was partitioned, leading to the creation of new states like Iraq.
Persia (Iran) experienced partial occupation and a change in its ruling dynasty.
These events fostered rivalry between Iraq and Iran, impacting the region and the world.
Rise of Saddam Hussein and Ayatollah Khomeini:
The late 1970s saw the rise of Saddam Hussein in Iraq and Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran, resulting in regional warfare and political changes.
These conflicts also involved the USA and the USSR during the Cold War.
Key Questions:
Why did the regimes of Iraq and Iran change in the late 1970s?
What role did oil play in the development of these states?
What were the causes and consequences of the wars?
What impact did the wars in the Gulf have on the region and the wider world?
7.1 Why was Saddam Hussein able to come to power in Iraq?
Development of Iraq (1920-1958):
In 1920, Britain created Iraq from three Ottoman provinces: Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra.
King Faisal I was appointed in 1921 to govern the new state.
Challenges in Ruling Iraq:
Diverse Population: 80% Arabian (Arabic-speaking) and 20% Kurdish (different language).
Religious Tensions: Shia Muslims were a slight majority, but the government was dominated by Sunnis.
Neighboring Iran was approximately 95% Shia, exacerbating tensions.
Oil Control: The Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), a foreign firm with British majority share, controlled oil resources, with 95% of revenue going to British, French, and American interests.
Border Disputes: Conflicts with Iran over their common border and limited access to the Gulf (only 36 miles of coastline and one port, Basra).
Kuwait had greater access to the sea and joint control of the Rumaila oil field, leading to Iraqi claims that Kuwait should have been part of Iraq.
British Influence:
Britain granted independence in 1932 but retained control over oil, defense, and foreign policy.
A rebellion in 1941 was crushed, and Britain occupied Iraq during WWII (1941-1945), maintaining the monarchy.
This British support made the king unpopular, leading to a military coup in 1958, in which King Faisal II and other key figures were killed.
The rise of the Ba'ath Party 1958 to 1968:
The new government was led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim.
The army had been inspired by pan-Arabism, a doctrine that aimed to unite all Arabs and end interference by western powers in the Middle East.
This was fuelled by the rise of Gamal Abdel Nasser who became president of Egypt in 1954.
Arab nationalism became a powerful force in the Middle East in the 1960s and appealed to many Iraqis.
Ba'ath Party Principles:
Founded in Syria in 1947, advocating pan-Arabism, unity, freedom, and socialism.
Sought a united, secular Arab state and opposed Western influence.
Political Instability:
In 1963, the Ba'athists overthrew and executed Qasim, but they lost power to Colonel Abd al-Salam Arif.
After Arif's death in a plane crash in 1966, his brother, Abd al-Rahman Arif, took power.
The Ba'ath Party was banned but secretly reorganized by Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr, who promoted his relative Saddam Hussein.
In 1968, they successfully seized power, removing enemies in the army and installing Ba'athists in key positions.
The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) was established as the main decision-making body, with al-Bakr as chairman and Saddam as deputy in 1969.
Saddam Hussein's rise to power
Early Life and Influences:
Born in 1937 in Tikrit, Saddam came from a poor background, and his uncle, who hated the British, raised him.
Joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957 and fled to Cairo in 1959 after participating in a failed assassination attempt on Qasim.
Political Ascent:
Following a failed Ba'athist coup in 1963, Saddam was jailed but escaped.
He was made Deputy Secretary General when al-Bakr reorganized the party, gaining control over the militia and security network.
Consolidation of Power:
Saddam admired Stalin and was known for his ruthlessness, trusting mainly people from Tikrit.
Worked with al-Bakr in the early 1970s but their relationship became strained.
In 1979, al-Bakr resigned (speculated to be under threat from Saddam), and Saddam purged enemies in the armed forces and party.
Saddam became President, Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party, Chairman of the RCC, and head of the armed forces.
7.2 What was the nature of Saddam Hussein's rule in Iraq?
Government Institutions:
Revolutionary Command Council (RCC)
Ba'ath Party
Republican Guard (elite troops formed in 1969 and separate from the army)
The army
National Assembly
Political Control:
Although elections were held in 1980 with some representation from Kurd and Shia parties, the National Assembly had no real power and served only as a platform for Saddam's speeches.
Communists were allowed to exist to appease the USSR, Iraq's main international ally.
Saddam made all major decisions and purged the government and army of perceived disloyal elements.
After becoming president in 1979, he had 66 leading figures tried, with 22 executed, and the footage was circulated as a warning.
Cult of Personality:
Saddam developed a cult of personality, with state propaganda calling him "al-batal" (the hero) and "al-mufakir" (the thinker).
Extensive propaganda through the newspaper al-Thawra and TV stations owned by the Ministry of Culture and Information.
Posters linked Saddam to ancient leaders like Nebuchadnezzar, and archaeological digs at ancient cities like Babylon aimed to connect the regime to a glorious past.
The economy and oil
Economic Phases Under Saddam (1968-2003):
Phase 1 (Up to 1980): Prosperity and economic/social progress.
Phase 2 (1980-1991): Wars with Iran and Kuwait devastated the economy and plunged the nation into debt.
Phase 3 (1991-2003): Stagnation due to international sanctions over weapons production.
Nationalization of Oil Industry:
The government nationalized the oil industry in 1972, leading to significant revenue increases due to the 1973 war between Egypt and Israel.
Oil prices rose sharply as OPEC blocked sales to Europe and the USA.
Iraq's oil revenue increased from less than million to billion by 1979.
Impact on Income and Living Standards:
Average income rose from per year to by the end of the 1970s.
Car ownership increased by over 150%.
Iraq lost billion per year for every drop in the price of a barrel of oil due to overproduction by other Gulf states.
Use of Oil Revenue:
Oil revenue was used to develop public services and infrastructure, reduce taxes, and improve pensions.
The war in the 1980s resulted in Iraq incurring billion in debt.
The Gulf War in 1990-1991 worsened the situation due to trade restrictions.
Post-Gulf War Economy:
Iraq's GDP stood at billion per year after the Gulf War, increasing slightly to billion by 1999.
Social change: women, farmers and education
Social change: women, farmers and education:
The 1970s was a positive time for many. The Ba'ath Party was secular and believed women should be educated and have important jobs in society.
By 1980 half of all teachers and dentists were female, as were one-third of university students and doctors.
The law was changed to end forced marriage and make divorce easier.
Change in the 1990s:
As Saddam's ideology changed in the 1990s he relied more on tribal support to maintain his regime.
This meant that old-fashioned customs became more important than progressive ideas. A law was passed allowing families to kill women they believed to be guilty of adultery.
Women were forbidden to travel abroad unless accompanied by a male relative on their father's side of the family.
Farmers and agricultural workers:
In 1958 as much as 55% of Iraq's farmland was owned by the richest 1%.
In 1970, the government set limits on property ownership with surplus land taken away and given to poorer farmers. Over 250,000 benefited from this reform.
Money made from oil was used to build roads, hospitals and electric power stations. These changes were important in building support for Saddam in the early years of his rule.
Education:
In 1978, a campaign was launched to end illiteracy within three years. All children and adults were forced to attend special schools for at least two years.
Although the campaign didn't meet its targets, it taught 2 million people basic reading and writing. UNESCO commended Iraq for this success.
Secondary school attendance increased by two-thirds and university places nearly doubled.
All this was seriously disrupted by the wars of the 1980s and there was little money for education after 1991.
Relations with the Shi'ites and Kurds
The Kurds:
The Kurds had been allowed a great deal of cultural and administrative freedom after Saddam made a deal with them in 1970, but when he failed to keep these promises they rebelled in 1974.
They were helped by the Shah of Iran but when a treaty was agreed with the Iranians in 1975 at Algiers it left the Kurds in a difficult situation.
In 1988 at the end of the war with Iran he used chemical weapons on the Kurdish town of Halabja killing 5,000.
The Shi'ites:
Shi'ites protests against Saddam began in 1977 and increased in 1979. A group called al-Da'wa (Islamic Call) were active in protests, so Saddam ordered the execution of the leading Shi'ite cleric Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr and had his sister killed.
Shi'ites remained loyal during the war with Iran yet after the Gulf War they had tired of Saddam's rule and rose in rebellion.
As with the Kurds there was no international support so Saddam sent his loyal Republican Guard to deal with the rebels. Some 30,000 were killed and another 70,000 fled across the border to Iran.
7.3 Why was there a revolution in Iran in 1979?
Iran under the Pahlavis 1926-1953:
After the First World War an army officer called Reza Khan seized power in Tehran and was crowned as Reza Shah in 1926.
Reza Shah was secular and restricted religious influence.
He removed Arabic words from the Persian language (Farsi), ended the wearing of veils by women and established Tehran University.
In 1935 he ordered that the country was to be known as Iran and not Persia.
Oil Discovery:
Oil had been discovered by the British in 1908 and they had a contract that entitled them to keep 84% of all profits.
With the Soviets they deposed Reza Shah and installed his young son Muhammad Reza Shah as king.
Iran was militarily occupied from 1941 to 1945, with American troops arriving in 1942.
Growing American Influence:
Growing American influence provoked a reaction in 1950 from the National Front led by Mohammad Mossadeq.
He became Prime Minister in 1951 and nationalized the oil industry.
Britain and USA led a boycott of Iranian oil and the CIA helped to depose Mossadeg in 1953.
Government and reform under the Shah (1953-1971):
The Shah was backed by the Americans but there was a strong communist party, called the Tudeh, which was supported by the USSR.
The National Front was outlawed and restrictions were placed on free speech.
The ulama hadn't supported the coup of 1953 as they disliked Mossadeg and the Tudeh's secular views, but in the 1960s they became the most serious opposition group.
The Shah took personal control of the country, aided by increased oil revenues. A new deal was made with Britain and the USA that gave Iran 50% of oil proceeds. This was used to expand the military and fund reforms.
Political System:
Elections to the Majlis (parliament) were allowed, but the parties were puppet organizations.
The Tudeh were banned, and political opponents were pursued by the secret police, SAVAK.
White Revolution (1963):
Aimed for land reform, education, and women's rights.
2 million peasants became landowners for the first time.
A literacy corps was created of 100,000 students who went to villages to teach peasants to read and write.
Women gained additional rights, and average annual income increased from in 1963 to around by the end of the Shah's reign.
Social Challenges:
Benefits were unevenly spread as wealth came from oil.
Population boom and Tehran became a city of 4.5 million people.
Shah's Image:
The Shah was out of touch, traveling by helicopter and staging elaborate propaganda celebrations at Persepolis that cost at least million.
Religious opposition
Religious Opposition:
The Shah's major critic was Ruhollah Khomeini, who rose to the level of ayatollah in 1961.
He gained fame in 1963 by preaching against the government and was arrested by SAVAK.
After demonstrations, he was released but later exiled in 1964, first to Turkey and then to Iraq.
From Najaf, Khomeini continued to preach against the Iranian government.
Khomeini's Appeal
Khomeini supported government to aid the poor before the White Revolution began suggesting the Shah was responding to his critics.
He also attacked American influence, which dramatically increased in the 1960s and 1970s. Nearly one million Americans visited Iran, and 50,000 became permanent residents.
Khomeini wanted Iran to be free of western interference and argued that religious scholars should run the country.
From protest to revolution:
In the 1970s the Shah spent his enormous oil revenue on weapons. Between 1972 and 1976 he spent billion on US-made equipment and Iran had the fifth largest army in the world.
The shah urged the Shah to end political oppression, so activists were released from jail and some freedom of speech was allowed.
This led to an outpouring of criticism, especially when Ali Shari'ati died in London (assassinated in 1977).
Escalation of Protests (January 1978):
Following the government's attacks on Khomeini in a newspaper article, protests erupted in Qom, resulting in military suppression and numerous deaths.
Customary 40-day mourning periods led to further protests and casualties in various cities.
Government Response:
Government spending cuts in the summer of 1978 caused high unemployment, adding to the crisis.
A mass demonstration in Tehran on 8 September led to severe violence.
Khomeini's Leadership:
Khomeini left Iraq for France, where he was interviewed by the world's media.
In December 1978, Muharram protests filled the streets of Tehran with around 2 million people carrying Khomeini's pictures.
Shah's Departure (January 1979):
The Shah left Iran with his family in January 1979.
Khomeini's Return:
Khomeini returned from France to be welcomed by millions.
The revolution marked the end of foreign influence and the beginning of government by radical religious leaders.
7.4 What were the causes and consequences of the Iran-Iraq War, 1980-1988?
Causes of the War:
Dispute Over Shatt al-Arab Waterway: Vital for Iraq's access to the Gulf.
Kurdish Resistance: Iranian support for Kurdish rebels in northern Iraq.
Rise of Ayatollah Khomeini: Khomeini attacked Saddam for being 'un-Islamic' and called on Iraq's Shia population to overthrow the Ba'athist government.
Early Hostilities:
Both sides rejected the Algiers Agreement and engaged in border shelling.
Iraq initiated the war by bombing Iranian airfields in September 1980, hoping for a quick victory.
The War on the Ground:
Initial limited Iraqi objectives.
Iranian Revolutionary Guard showed strong resistance.
Both sides settled into a war of attrition.
Iran launched devastating attacks in 1981, lifting the siege of Abadan.
Iraq's Shia population was Arabic and didn't speak Farsi so they stayed loyal to Saddam.
Iranian offensives continued from 1983 to 1985 but failed to break Iraqi lines.
Their main objective was to capture Basra but Saddam used chemical weapons to defend against assaults.
In 1986 the Iranians finally made a breakthrough in the south, capturing the Fao Peninsula,.
The war at sea:
In 1984 Saddam switched the focus to the Gulf to attack Iranian shipping. This expanded the regional importance of the war as Iran threatened to stop all international shipping if they were prevented from exporting oil.
In 1987 the Kuwaitis and Saudis appealed to the USA for help. Their ships were allowed to fly USA flags as a convoy system evolved which was reminiscent of the Second World War. The American navy was drawn into conflict and shot down an Iranian passenger plane heading to Dubai, killing 290 civilians.
The Iranians could not match US naval power in the Gulf and this made the war unwinnable by 1988.
The war in the air:
Iran had planes supplied by the USA to the Shah. However, the withdrawal of American advisers and mechanics ant many of these were unserviceable.
By 1988 Iraq had aerial superiority and attacked Tehran, causing the city to be evacuated.
Saddam also ordered three chemical attacks on the Kurds in the north, causing horrific scenes in Halabja where 5,000 died and another 10,000 were wounded inhaling poison gas.
Foreign Involvement:
Initially, both sides had problematic relations with the outside world.
By 1984, most world powers favoured an Iraqi victory.
The USSR provided aid to Saddam, including equipment.
Financial backers: Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.
Diplomatic ties with Baghdad had been cut in 1967 but the USA embassy was restored so they provided Iraq with intelligence and financial aid.
In return for the release of US hostages in Lebanon they sold Iran weapons, despite supporting Saddam. This 'Iran-Contra Scandal' caused a great controversy when it was exposed.
Peace and Consequences of the War:
Saddam offered peace talks in 1982, but Khomeini wanted an end to the Ba'athist regime.
A UN peace proposal known as Resolution 598 was put forward in July 1987. Khomeini initially rejected it but a year later the Iranian leadership finally accepted the terms of a ceasefire.
Accepting the resolution was bitter and tragic for everyone.
Other estimates claim the joint total was over 1 million, and it is possible that a quarter of Iraqi losses were civilians killed by their own government
Aftermath:
Iranian officers reported that they had to force their men to carry on firing when they were shooting at young boys.
The conflict was so destructive that it had a significant impact on the wider region, especially the economy. Oil was instrumental in this as it tied the wider world to the Middle East.
7.5 Why did the First Gulf War take place?
Causes of the Gulf War:
The Iran-Iraq War had left Iraq with significant financial problems:
Iraq owed billion in loans.
The country's infrastructure had been heavily damaged with rebuilding costs estimated to be even higher than its debt.
The army had one million men.
There was also a dispute about oil production. The price had dropped from its peak of per barrel in 1982 to just due to overproduction by the Gulf monarchies.
OPEC set a maximum production limit to try to keep the price at per barrel but Kuwait and others were ignoring this.
After Iraq became a country in 1920 they refused to recognise Kuwait They felt that the border was unfair as Kuwait had much better access to the Gulf and only accepted the situation in 1963.
US involvement:
US President Bush didn't condemn the attack but British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was more outspoken.
Having taken over Kuwait Saddam was in control of 20% of the world's oil production. If he invaded Saudi Arabia too it would jump to 40%. This was unacceptable to the western powers.
Operation Desert Shield:
The defence of Saudi Arabia was called 'Operation Desert Shield'. Saddam's army in Kuwait numbered 500,000 men so vastly outnumbered Saudi Arabia's forces.
The UN Security Council set a deadline for Iraq to withdraw by 15 January. In the meantime 250,000 US troops were sent to the Arabian peninsula.
Operation Desert Storm:
At 3 a.m. local time on 17 January, Operation Desert Storm began. This involved aerial bombing . The aim was to disrupt communications, attack strategic sites and hit the Iraqi ground forces. The effect was devastating.
The coalition forces were two-thirds American but many Arab states such as Egypt and Syria were involved in small but symbolically important numbers.
Land War (100 hours) Retreating soldiers started a rebellion and were killed.
Aftermath:
Retreating Iraqi soldiers in the south started a rebellion. A Kurdish rebellion in the north was also brutally suppressed. Financial losses were enormous. The environmental impact was appalling.