Grade 9 History Student Textbook Definitive Notes

Unit 1: The Discipline of History and Human Evolution

Meaning of Prehistory and History

• History: Derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning "inquiry" or "an account of one’s inquiries." It is the study of humans in the past, documenting their actions and experiences.

• Historians: Specialized scholars who study and write about the human past.

• Timeline of History: History is generally considered to have begun approximately $5,500$ years ago with the development of writing and recording system.

• Prehistory: The study of the distant past before the invention of the art of writing. Clues about early human life in this era are discovered by Archaeologists and Anthropologists.

• Interaction with Environment: A significant concern of history is how humans interacted with the natural environment in the past to produce primary needs (food, shelter, clothing). This process led to improvements in production tools and the quantity/quality of produce.

• Historical Facts vs. Opinion:

  • Fact: A statement known or proven to be true based on supporting information.

  • Opinion: A belief or viewpoint held by a writer that cannot be definitively proven.

  • Inquiry: History is an objective pursuit of truth using established rules and procedures.

The Discipline of History

• Definition: A branch of social science dealing with past human activities, including political, economic, social, and cultural changes.

• Importance of History:

  • Helps understand the present and foresee future developments.

  • Provides a sense of identity and understanding of national/international issues (democracy, nationalism).

  • Develops research skills: collecting, analyzing information, and reaching conclusions.

• Historiography: The study of how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted.

  • Oldest written history comes from China (before $1000$ BC).

  • Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC): Often called the "father of history."

  • Thucydides: Known for critical and accurate historical writing.

  • Leopold Von Ranke (1795-1886): The "father of modern historiography."

  • Ethiopian Historiography: Chronicling traditions changed in the early $20th$ century; history emerged as an academic discipline in Ethiopia in the $1960s$.

• Sources of History:

  • Primary Sources: Original materials contemporary with the events. Examples: Monuments, tools, coins (e.g., Silver Coins of Enudybis), fossils, manuscripts, chronicles, diaries, and photographs.

  • Secondary Sources: Information derived from primary sources. Examples: Textbooks, biographies, oral traditions, and articles.

  • Oral Traditions: Historical sources transmitted by word of mouth across generations.

Dating and Chronology in History

• Decade: A period of $10$ years.

• Century: A period of $100$ years.

• Millennium: A period of $1,000$ years.

• Calendars:

  • Gregorian Calendar: Counts time forward (AD - anno Domini) and backward (BC - Before Christ) from the birth of Jesus Christ.

  • Islamic Calendar: Based on the Hijra (flight of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in $622$ AD). Years are denoted as BH (Before Hijra) and AH (After Hijra).

  • Ethiopian Calendar: Lags $7$ to $8$ years behind the Gregorian calendar.

• Periodization: Organization of the human past into segments: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern History.

The Evolution of Human Beings

• Theories of Origin:

  1. Creationist: Life was created by God or a supernatural being.

  2. Evolutionist (Scientific): Formulated by Charles Darwin ($1809-1882$); posits that living things result from gradual variation from earlier forms.

• Human Family: Humans belong to the Hominid family, characterized by bipedalism (walking on two feet upright).

• The Genus Homo:

  1. Homo habilis: The "handy human," considered the oldest human species (fossils found in Omo Valley, Ethiopia).

  2. Homo erectus: "Upright human," emerged around $2$ million years ago. First to leave Africa; mastered fire. (Sites: Melka-Kunture, Konso-Gardula).

  3. Homo sapiens: "Wise human," very similar to modern humans.

  4. Homo sapiens sapiens: Modern humans, appeared around $100,000$ years ago; characterized by large brains and complex culture.

• Key African Fossils:

  • Sahelian chadensis: Found in northern Chad ($7-6$ million years old).

  • Australopithecus ramidus: Found in Afar, Ethiopia ($4.4$ million years old).

  • Lucy (Dinkinesh): Australopithecus afarensis, discovered at Hadar, Ethiopia in $1974$ by Donald Johanson ($3.18$ million years old).

The Stone Age and Emergence of States

• Stone Age Subdivisions:

  • Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Longest period (until $9,000$ BC); use of crude hand-axes and fire.

  • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Transitional period ($9000-8000$ BC); improved tools.

  • Neolithic (New Stone Age): ($8000-4000$ BC). Characterized by the Neolithic Revolution (Agricultural Revolution)—the shift from hunting/gathering to systematic agriculture and sedentary life.

• The State: A politically organized body defined by population, territory, government, sovereignty, and recognition.

  • Theories of Origin: Religious/Theocratic (rule by priests), Agriculture/Surplus (rule by wealthy elites), Trade routes, and War/Conflict.

Unit 2: Ancient World Civilizations up to c. 500 AD

Ancient African Civilizations

• Ancient Egypt: Began around $3000$ BC in the Nile Valley. Unified by Menes (c. $3200$ BC).

  • Pharaohs: Absolute kings regarded as gods. Helped by Viziers (mayors/judges).

  • Religion: Polytheistic; belief in life after death led to mummification and the building of pyramids (tombs).

  • Writing: Hieroglyphics ($3000$ BC) and papyrus.

• Nubia (Kush): Along the Nile in northeastern Sudan ($2000$ BC - $350$ AD).

  • Capital: Meroe (famed for iron industry and metal technology).

  • Ezana of Aksum destroyed Meroe in $350$ AD.

Civilizations in Asia

• Mesopotamia: Between Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq/Syria).

  • Sumerians: Built first cities; constructed Ziggurats (stepped towers).

  • Cuneiform: Writing system developed around $3200$ BC.

• Persia: Largest ancient empire, founded by Cyrus the Great (c. $550$ BC).

  • Religion: Zoroastrianism (founded by Zoroaster).

• India: Began in Indus Valley (c. $2500$ BC).

  • Caste System: Social hierarchy (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Sudras, and Dalits/Untouchables).

  • Religions: Hinduism and Buddhism (reform movement from Hinduism).

• China: Yellow River (Hwang Ho) region. Shang Dynasty (c. $1700$ BC) created bronze and writing.

  • Confucianism: Taught by Confucius ($551-479$ BC); emphasized well-ordered society.

  • Great Wall: Built to keep out invaders (approx. $7,400$ km).

Americas and Europe

• Latin America:

  • Maya: Advanced astronomy, mathematics, and architectural pyramids.

  • Inca: Skilled engineers; built vast road networks in the Andes.

  • Aztecs: Central Mexico; capital Tenochtitlan. Destroyed by Spanish in $1521$.

• Greek Civilization: Birthplace of Western Civilization. Focused on city-states (Polis) like Athens and Sparta.

  • Achievements: Democracy, Philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), Medicine (Hippocrates), History (Herodotus, Thucydides).

• Roman Civilization: Began around $753$ BC. Roman Republic ($509-27$ BC) governed by Consuls and Senate.

  • Legacy: Latin language, Roman Law, Julian calendar, engineering (Coliseum).

• Rise of Christianity: Started in Palestine (1st century AD). Persecuted initially but became state religion under Theodosius the Great ($392$ AD) after Edict of Milan ($313$ AD) by Constantine. Split in $1054$ into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.

Unit 3: Peoples and States in Ethiopia and the Horn to the End of 13th C.

Languages and Religions

• Language Super-Families:

  • Afro-Asiatic: Divided into Cushitic (Oromo, Somali, Sidama, Afar, Agaw), Semitic (Amharic, Tigrigna, Ge'ez, Guraghigna), and Omotic (Wolaita, Gamo, Keficho).

  • Nilo-Saharan: Divided into Chari-Nile (Anuak, Nuer, Kunama) and Koman (Gumuz, Ma'o).

• Religions:

  • Indigenous: e.g., Waqeffanna (Oromo belief in Waqa).

  • Judaism: Practiced by Bete-Israel.

  • Christianity: Introduced c. $330$ AD to King Ezana by Frumentius (Abune Selama). Expanded by the "Nine Saints."

  • Islam: First refugees arrived in Aksum in $615$ AD (First Hijra). King Armah (Ahmed al-Nejash) protected them. Spread via trade routes (Zeila, Red Sea, Indian Ocean).

Early States

• Punt: Ancient state known for trade with Egypt (gold, ivory, myrrh).

• Yeha: Oldest center (c. $1000$ BC); Hawulti-Melazo and Damat (ruler title: Mukarib) were other pre-Aksumite states.

• Aksumite Kingdom: Nucleus at Aksum (1st century AD). Known for steles, minted coins, and Adulis port. Declined after Muslim Arabs took control of the Red Sea and destroyed Adulis ($702$ AD).

• Zagwe Dynasty: Founded c. $1150$ AD by Mera Tekle Haymnot in Lasta. Capital: Adefa (Roha/Lalibela). Famous for $11$ rock-hewn churches built by Emperor Lalibela.

• Solomonic Restoration: Yekuno Amlak overthrew the last Zagwe king (Yetbarek) in $1270$ AD, claiming descent from King Solomon and Queen of Sheba.

• Sultanate of Shewa: Established in $896$ AD (Makhzumite dynasty). Later succeeded by the Walasma dynasty of the Sultanate of Ifat in $1285$.

Unit 4: The Middle Ages and Early Modern World (c. 500 to 1750s)

Medieval Europe and Asia

• Dark Ages: ($500-1000$ AD) Period of decline in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

• Feudalism: Socio-economic system based on land holding (Fief) and service. Hierarchy: Kings, Nobles, Knights, and Peasants/Serfs. Basic unit: Manor.

• Byzantine Empire: East Roman Empire (Capital: Constantinople). Reached peak under Justinian.

• Islam Expansion: Under Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. Ottoman Turks took Constantinople in $1453$ (renamed Istanbul).

• China: Governed by the "Dynastic Cycle" and the "Mandate of Heaven."

Early Modern Developments

• Capitalism: Emerged as a system using accumulated capital for production.

• Age of Discovery: Leading nations were Portugal and Spain.

  • Vasco da Gama: Sea route to India ($1498$).

  • Columbus: Reached America ($1492$).

  • Magellan: Circumnavigated the world ($1519-1522$).

• Renaissance: Rebirth of learning (14th-17th century). Figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Shakespeare, Copernicus.

• Reformation: Started by Martin Luther ($1517$) in Germany. Led to Protestantism and the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Jesuits).

• Industrial Revolution: Began in Great Britain ($1780s$). Invention of the steam engine (James Watt). Shifted economy from farming to factory manufacturing.

Unit 5-6: Africa and the Outside World

African States and Societies

• West African Empires: Ghana, Mali (Mansa Musa), and Songhai. Thrived on the Trans-Saharan Trade (Gold and Salt).

• East Africa: Swahili city-states (Kilwa, Mogadishu, Mombasa) mixed Bantu-Arab culture.

• Southern Africa: Great Zimbabwe (Shona people); Mwene Mutapa empire.

• Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Known as Triangular Trade. Phases: Piratic, Monopolistic, and Free Trade. Over $12$ million Africans were deported.

• Legitimate Trade: Trade in commodities (palm oil, rubber) after the abolition of slavery.

• White Settlement in South Africa: Dutch established Cape Colony ($1652$). Conflict with Khoisan and Xhosa. Great Trek ($1835$) was the Boer movement north to escape British law.

Unit 7-8: Ethiopian States and Processes (13th - 19th C.)

Conflict and Interaction

• Solomonic Expansion: Amde-Tsion ($1314-1344$) expanded territory to control trade routes. Used mobile capitals.

• Gult System: Feudal administration where officials collected tribute from peasants.

• Adal vs. Christian Kingdom: Height of war ($1529-1543$) led by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Gragn). Both sides were supported by foreign powers (Portugal for Christians, Ottomans for Adal).

• Oromo Population Movement: Started in the 16th century from Madda Walabu. Organized under the Gadaa System (8-year cycles; classes: Melba, Mudena, Kilole, etc.).

• Oromo Institutions: Moggasa (adopting groups) and Guddifacha (adopting children).

• Egalitarian Systems: Sidama (Luwa), Gedeo (Ballee), and Konso.

Later Developments

• Gondarine Period: Founded by Fasiladas ($1636$). Notable for castles and the "Golden Age" of architecture.

• Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Warlords): ($1769-1855$). Central power collapsed. Regional lords (Tigray, Gojjam, Yejju) competed for power. Ended with the rise of Tewodros II.

• Kingdom of Shewa: Thrived under Sahle Sellase ($1813-1847$). Developed independent foreign links.

Unit 9: The Age of Revolutions (1750s to 1815)

Political and Economic Revolutions

• Industrial Capitalism: Growth of bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers). Characterized by laissez-faire economy.

• French Revolution ($1789$): Sparked by the storming of the Bastille. Social structure divided into Three Estates. Led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the execution of Louis XVI.

• Napoleonic Era ($1799-1815$): Napoleon Bonaparte established the Napoleonic Code. His empire collapsed after the failed invasion of Russia ($1812$) and defeat at Waterloo ($1815$).

• American War of Independence ($1775-1783$): $13$ colonies fought Britain. George Washington became the first president. Resulted in the US Constitution ($1787$).

• Congress of Vienna ($1815$): Aimed to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe (Metternich) and establish a balance of power.

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Glossary Terms

• Abbaa Gadaa: Gadaa leader/Master of Gadaa period.

• Balabbat: Hereditary owner of rist land or district appointee.

• Chaffe: Oromo Gadaa assembly.

• Dejjazmach: Commander of the gate.

• Gult: Non-hereditary right to collect tribute.

• Jeberti: Ethiopian Muslim merchants.

• Kawo/Kaato: Title for King among Wolaita/Gamo and Dawuro.

• Moggasa: System of adopting non-Oromo into Oromo clans.

• Woma: King title among Kambata, Sidama, and Tambar