Family- Childhood and demographics

A Social Construct

• Sociologists see childhood as socially constructed, meaning it is something created and defined by society.

  • for some it is about chronological age.

  • for some it is about biology and physically “growing up”

  • still being able to be protected by specific laws

  • for some it is about freedom from responsibility

• Tend to think of childhood as clear and separate period of life different from the world of adults.

• In childhood, children receive a long period of support and socialisation by adults before themselves.

Stephen Wagg

• as childhood is socially constructed, this is not on single universal experience.

• all humans go through the same physical process of ageing but what it means to be a child also depends on factors such as social class, ethnicity and gender.

1. different status, responsibilites, and treatment of kids in different cultures.

• In many other societies, children take on adult roles as soon as they are physically able, such as manual. 1/7 children involed in work.

• In particular, girls are vulnerable to sexual exploitation as they are more likely to be abused, raped or trafficked. 1/10 girls experience sexual violence.

• In the case of child soldiers, kids are given weapons used to brutalise and kill other kids as part of adult conflicts . 2008- in 21 countries.

• the way the nature of childhood has changed through history and today.

2. the difference is expectations between children in the same society.

   However, many societies aim to protect young people from these atrocities through special laws that protect children.

   Important to recognise that the conception and experiences of childhood are not the same for everyone even in the same society.

   • social class: (2012)- 27% of children in poverty. richer parents can afford to pay for activities to enhance their personal and social development e.g. dance, music lessons. poorer children are more likely to do activities with less beneficial effects e.g. watch TV

   • gender: girls will have a different and more restricted childhood than boys (bedroom culture) especially asian girls

3. the way the nature of childhood has changed through history and today.

Philippe Aries- in medieval times, childhood did not exist as separate status. children often moved from infancy to working in the community as ‘little adults’. e.g. most kids worked from age 7, no toys, games, clothing, schools

500-1500: Medieval child

• began work at 12-14

• 25% of babies died in the first year

• education focused on training kids for positions in church

• children seen as innocent

1501-1700: early modern child

• children were “not quite human”

• no school, but learnt morals at church

• seen as sublime and celestal

• left to their own devices

1701-1800: 18th century child

• toys stores with rational amusements

• problems of abuse and child labour

• middle class most invested in education

• systems rewards and shame best way to learn.

1801-1836: romantic child

• on average, 1 in 4 children died within a decade of birth

• there was an emphais on indoctrination, educating child as if ‘adults-in-training’

• others tried to protect children and keep them uncorrupted from the adult world.

• Children became an important part of the bookseller market:

  • boys: conquer and gain from the outside world

  • girls: encouraged to do domestic duties and be passive and modest

• emphasis on virtues like generosity

1837-1901: victorian child

• laws protecting children in work, school and home

• 90% of 7-8 year olds in school

• children should be treated better

• declining birth rate due to more contraception

March of Progress

medicalisation of childhood- low infant mortality rates, NHS care

Education- compulsory until 18, increased funding

Work- laws against child labour, minimum wage for 16-17 year olds

Time- parents spend more time with children, concept of parenting exists

Money- children now have more money to spend than ever before

• Functionalists argue that the family is constantly improving as socieities develop as families are now more “child-centred” so children have a better experience.

• status of children improved substantially e.g. better diets, medical care, rigths and facilities

• does not mean children are equal to adults: still told by parents what to do, when and where to be

• while many laws are designed to protect children, many people view them as form of control which limits independence and forces dependence on adutls

Unhappy children, Womick- British children “unhappiest in western world”

• do not feel loved and cared for by their parents

• 3.7 million in poverty

• 33% live away from biological fathers

• poor physical+ mental health

• exposure to risks of drugs, alcohol and unsafe sex

• 43,000 have childcare protection plan

Rees: 9% aged 14-18 run away from home overnight at least once

Children who are unhappy rebel in many ways:

• 3000 crimes per year comitted by those under 10

• 75,000 school children enter youth CJS

• Older people typically complain about youth anti social behaviour

• many parents are being blamed for not socilalising and supervising their children properly.

Future of childhood

Neil Postman, Postmodernist

• Childhood is disappearing as the lifestyles fo children and adults are merging.

• Children’s behaviour, language, styles and attitudes are becoming indistinguishable.

• Children are growing up too fast.

Sue Palmer, Postmodernist

• parents are losing influence over their kids due to the independence that they have gained from modern technology e.g. many children have their own mobile phones

• parents lack control over the information, images and values that their children are exposed to.

• parents attempt to use these devices, along with junk food, to keep children occupied.

• however, technology can create a barrier between parents and children as young people develop their own youth culture that parents do not understand or experience e.g. use of social media

Julia Margo, Postmodernist

• the media has a negative influence on kids as it introduces them to adult issues too early.

2007, Cambridge university study: primary school kids express concern about adult related themes like climate change, wealth inequality and terrorism.

2014, Halifax Pocket money: average child age 8-15 got £6.35 a week

• Margo argues younger children use pester power to get their own way

• older children are gullible customers

- loss of childhood is lowering age of first sexual intercourse

1950s: age 20, 1990s: age 16

- advertisers and retailers encourage children to dress and act in a sexually precocious way e.g. youth magazines giving sex tips

Demographic change

Demography- the study of a population

• in order for the government to prepare social policy they need to know and understand current and future trends of population size and distribution

• this data is necessary to allocate resources, land, housing, education and finance

• census every 10 years as a questionnaire (online since 2021)

4 main factors that influence population

1. birth rate 2. death rate 3. immigration 4. emigration

Globalisation- the ongoing process of technological and social change that is increasing the interconnectedness of economic, cultural and political spheres across the world

net migration: number of immigrants- number of emigrants

👊 PUSH FACTORS: escaping poverty, few jobs, war, undesirable climate, persecution

🤲 PULL FACTORS: job opportunities, educational opportunities, higher standard of living, political/ religious freedom, joining relatives

💗 For UK, the biggest pull factor is work/ education.

Impacts of migration on families

• more immigration from the EU

• more undocumented workers/ illegal immigrants

• more asylum seekers (those applying for refugee status)

• greater cultural diversity, more interethnic families

• changing family size

Ulrich Beck- talks of growth in world families and “distant love” across continents

Deborah Chambers- increase in mail order brides and enforced prostituion, a “purchase of intimacy”, increase in au pairs from poor countries

Family size

China, One Child Policy, 1980

- Enforced laws that made it illegal to have more than one child in order to slow its rapid population growth

- punishment was through fines

- fertility rate

• 1975- 3

• 2010- 1.55

Singapore, National night

- has problems with low fertility rate and a shrinking population

- national night was a advert propoganda to encourage people to have sex

- Singapore needed to produce 50,000 children per year to maintain the population but it was less than 30,000

- as a result of having children, they were rewarded with financial incentives

• Birth control pill was first available on the NHS in 1961.

• Social attitudes towards contraception have changed, partly due to growing secularisation meaning there is a declining influence of the church and relgion on people’s behaviour.

• Safe and legal abortion has happened since 1967.

Opinion Matters survey

• average family size is declining due to rising costs

• 16% of married or cohabitating couples only had one child in 1972, now it is 20%

• 58% of these parents cited money as the overwhelming reason for why they didn’t have more kids

  • Hirsch: child costs couples £154,000 from birth to age 18

Changing position of women

Women have different priorities now than those in earlier generations, and have less of a desire to spend long periods of their lives bearing and rearing children.

Angela McRobbie: looked at implications on the number of children being born.

• was because women now had a desire for a degree and a rewarding career

done by:

1. limiting number of children

2. delaying having them until careers are established

3. choosing not to have any children at all

→ 25% of women now expected to be childless at age 45.

Factors leading to smaller families

1. Compulsory education: children have now ceased to be an economic asset and instead have become an economic liability.

2. Declining infant mortality rates: better medical care means parents no longer need to protect against kids dying before them.

3. Geographic mobility: easier for smaller families to pack up and move elsewhere for new job opportunities.

4. Changing values: children are a lifelong commitment and couples are more reluctant to have them due to other pursuits.

Life Expectancy

Life expectancy- an estimate of how long the average newborn can be expected to live in a particular country.

UK- 81 overall, men- 79, women- 83 (top 10% of world)

• Monaco has the best life expectancy. (90)

Factors which influence life expectancy

1. hygiene, sanitation, medicine: meant epidemic killer diseases have been eliminated. vaccines and surgery and new drugs has increased life expectnacy as people now survive illnesses that would have killed them in the past.

2. higher living standards- better wages, food, inside toilets, hot running water, freezers, more affordable fresh fruit and vegetables all year round.

3. public health and welfare- NHS means for example, safer childbirth, health visits to newborn babies, welfare benefits help to maintains standards of health in times of hardship, and older people are more cared for e.g. pensions, care homes, care helps

4. health education- growing awareness for nutrition and its relation to health means the public are better informed so demand better hygiene and social reforms to improve health. e.g. benefits of excercise, dangers of smoking, balanced diet

5. improved working conditions- technology has taken over some of the most health damaging tasks, machinery is also now helpful, shorter working hours and more leisure time has made work physically less demanding and therefore has reduced risks to health.

McKeown: argues that an improvement in diet and nutrition has been more significant in wiping out epidemic diseases than medical advances have.

Tranter: argues that medical advances are the main reason for rising life expectancy e.g. improved surgery, vaccines, antibiotics

• 1 in 3 babies expected to reach 100 in 2013, compared to only 1% in 1908

• 1901: men- 45, women- 49

• In 2007, people in the UK aged over 65 outnumbered the number of people under 16.

Ageing population

Rising life expectancy and a declining birth rate means that the overall structure of the population has changed.

→ Boost to the economy

→ More social cohesion

→ Less Crime

→ Family support

Abolition of the retirement age, 2011- employers are no longer required to force workers to retire once they reach 65

Lawton: this means older people have the freedom to work longer if they choose. However, many will plan to retire around this age, and can collect a state pension. ‘power of the grey pound’

Negatives of a rising life expectancy

• many of these concerns are based on the dependency ration

• dependency (0-14, 65+): working age (15-64)

• 2002: 49:100

• 2012: 53:100

• 2022: 57:100

→ Pensions timebomb: a 2014 study found that although people aged 65+ are a 1/6 of the population, they consume 60% of prescribed drugs, and are 50% of people who go to hospital. Around ½ of the state welfare budget is spent on pensioners. The worry is that these costs will keep on rising till it is out of control.

→ Sandwich generation: people have have both dependent children and dependent parents to care for socially, economically and emotionally. (could also be double sandwich)

• people are living older so there are wider gaps between each generation 🦷

Feminists argue that the burdens of caring for the elderly fall in particular to women, even though they already carry most of the burden in their own home. 25% of women aged 50-64 care for dependent family members compared to only 17% of men.

Marxists like Chris Philipson believe that attitudes to old age are influenced by capitalism. The elderly can be seen as “too old to work” so they are “cast aside” by society because they can no longer contribute to the economy.

Another problem of having an ageing population is that the country will be full of more people.

• increased overcrowding on public transport, roads, need to build more homes

• makes it more difficult for young people to find their own affordable homes as older people occupy their home longer.

Postmodernists: ‘old age is socially constructed’

• attitudes to olde age are changing on the media

• magazines and advertisements often portray “young old” rather than “old old”

• modern technology allows people to mask their old age through plastic surgery

Young old- recently retired and often physically fit

Old old- reaching end of life

Ageism

Ageism is when someone is discriminated against due to their age.

• this is illegal in the UK after the 2010 equality act which made age a protected characteristics

• cannot be discriminated against due to being a certain age, or because someone thinks you are a certain age (perception), or by association by being connected to someone of a specific age.

Don’t Panic, Hans Rosling

• uses statistical date to educate people about misconceptions of other parts of the world

• uses quantitative data visually to compare 2 factors and show change over time