Rise of Islam: Origins, Practices, Successors, and Cultural Life
Pre-Islamic Bedouin Culture
Who: Bedouins
When: 6th century CE
Where: Arabian Peninsula
Sheikh: Clan or tribe ruled with the consent of the tribal council.
Decisions were based on allegiance to other tribes in the region.
Polygamy: Practiced where a man has more than one wife at a time.
Used to care for widows whose husbands died in raids or warfare.
Each tribe had a sacred stone, with the most revered being a large black stone in Mecca.
No separate class of priests; everyone in the tribe was part of the religion.
Tribal Values: Honesty and generosity (incorporated into Islam).
Cultural Characteristics:
Nomadic
Tribal
Animism blended with Polytheism: Worshipped over 360 gods with the supreme deity, Allah.
Land trade routes via camels formed the basis of the Arabian economy.
Nearby empires, the Byzantine Empire (to the north) and Sassanid/Persian Empire (to the north and east), utilized water routes from the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea.
Bedouin competed with coastal merchants and traders and their growing wealth.
Muhammed and the Origins of Islam
Born approximately in 570 CE in Mecca, Muhammad was orphaned early and raised by his paternal uncle Abu Talib.
Worked as a merchant accompanying caravans to trade centers, contacting Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.
By 595 CE, Muhammad met and married Khadijah, a rich merchant widow, improving his status.
Retreated to a cave named Hira in the mountains for seclusion and prayer to meditate on problems in Mecca.
Experienced revelations in the cave attributed to an angel of Allah.
These revelations were collected in the Quran (Koran), the religious text of Islam.
Muhammad was told to call people to worship one God and began spreading this message in Mecca.
Abu Bakr warned Muhammad about the dangers of spreading his new religious ideas.
Ideas considered "dangerous" included:
No man should starve
The rich should not defraud the poor
The strong should not oppress the weak
Girls should not be forced into marriage
He called for social justice and the collection of alms for the poor.
Attracted followers and met in secret.
According to tradition, it took three years to gather 30 followers.
Muhammad criticized traditional polytheism, tribal loyalties, and commercial practices in Mecca.
Rich and powerful merchants grew angry as gods and idols were their source of income.
The ruling elite rallied against Muhammad, rejected him, and persecuted his followers.
Muslims viewed Muhammad as a great prophet, the final one in a line including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.
Muslims do not worship Muhammad as divine, unlike the Christian view of Jesus.
In 622, Muhammad and his followers fled to Medina to escape persecution; this is called the Hegira.
In Medina, Muhammad formed the first Muslim community.
After ten years, Muhammad returned to Mecca with many followers.
In 628, Muhammad negotiated a truce with the Meccans.
Most Meccans accepted Islam, and Muhammad cleared the idols from the Kaaba, rededicating it to Allah.
With the conversion of Mecca, most of the Arab world came under Muhammad's authority.
The Kaaba held a major economic and religious role.
Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim Qibla, or direction for prayer (salat).
The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure was built in 1629.
Spread of Islam
During Muhammad’s lifetime, most of the Arabian Peninsula was united under Islam.
Conditions in Arabia that contributed to the rapid spread of Islam:
Drought
Rulers’ desire to extend trade routes
People carried their faith and introduced it to others as they moved.
Islam also expanded through military conquest.
Islamic rule became relatively tolerant after conquering an area.
Forced conversion was not practiced.
Conquered peoples could be exempt from military service if they paid a tax.
Strong allegiance among Arabs to Islam and the egalitarian nature of the religion attracted many new converts.
Egalitarian: philosophical perspective that favors social equality.
Islam emerged as the third major monotheistic world religion from Southwest Asia.
Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam was a monotheistic faith that honored Abraham and other prophets.
Islam showed great respect towards other People of the Book due to their similarities.
Core Principles of Islam:
Ideas of salvation and hope of an afterlife
Importance of submission to the will of Allah
Belief in the Quran as the sacred book providing guidance and laws for the followers.
Islam in Practice
To put these principles into practice, Muslims have a core set of obligations known as the Five Pillars.
The Five Pillars include:
Believing in one God, Allah
Praying five times a day facing Mecca
Giving alms to the poor
Fasting during the month of Ramadan
Making a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime
Another principle of Islam is the concept of jihad, the struggle to strive in the way of Allah and improve oneself and society.
Many Muslims view jihad as an inner struggle, while some interpret it as a requirement to go to war to preserve and extend Islam.
Shariah Law:
Developed after Muhammad's death by Muslim scholars.
Islamic code of law that outlines behavioral requirements for daily life:
Requires morality and honesty
Bans gambling, eating pork, and drinking alcohol
Polygyny permitted in some circumstances, but Mohammad attempted to limit the practice to four wives
Muslims were cautioned not to enslave Muslims, Christians, or Jews.
Countries that have based their laws on Shariah Law include: Iran, parts of Nigeria, Afghanistan, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen.
Muhammad's Successors and the Umayyads and Abbasids
After a short illness, Muhammad died in Medina at the age of 63.
Before his death, Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious government.
Disagreement broke out over who his successor would be, leading to the formation of two groups: Sunni and Shia (Shiites).
Sunni vs Shia
Sunni
Believe: the community of Muslims should determine who would succeed Muhammad
Today make up: About 85 - 90% of Muslims
Supported: Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law
Shia
Believe: believed that only descendants and family members of Muhammad should be the successor
Today make up: Less than 15% of Muslims
Supported: Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law
Dar al-Islam refers to all of Islamic culture, including Shia and Sunni.
Shia are most prominent in Iran and Iraq.
The First Four Caliphs
Abu Bakr becomes the first caliph, head of state.
Responsible for guiding the Islamic world in accordance with the dictates of the Quran.
His supporters became known as the Sunnis.
Refer to the first four successors as the “Rightly Guided Caliphs”
Ali becomes the fourth caliph
His supporters became known as the Shia
Consider Ali the “first true caliph”
As caliphs conquered more land beyond the Arabian Peninsula, they spread:
Islam
Arabic language
Cultivation of cotton, sugar, and citrus crops
Abu Bakr led raids into the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Sassanid Empire
Political conquest did not always lead to religious conversion because:
Muhammad’s teachings did not encourage forced conversion
Financially, Muslims were exempt from paying taxes and converted Muslims were given reduced taxes
Ali, the fourth caliph, ruled from 656 until his assassination in 661.
Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750)
After Ali’s death, a network of Sunni merchants from Mecca with generals and armies took power, forming the Umayyad Caliphate.
Moved capital to Damascus.
Controlled as far west as Gibraltar, in the Iberian Peninsula, and as far east as India.
Largest empire since the Roman Empire.
Followers of Ali, a Shia, resisted Umayyad leaders, leading to the start of their own political and religious communities with leaders called Imam.
Abbasid Caliphate (750 - 1258)
After 90 years, the Umayyad rulers grew weak and corrupt.
In 750, their capital fell to a group known as the Abbasids.
Established a new city called Baghdad that becomes the capital, which gives the Abbasid many advantages.
Becomes one of the most powerful and innovative empires of all time.
Baghdad’s Influence on the Abbasid Caliphate
Improved paper-making techniques make paper thicker and more useful than the original Chinese paper-making process.
A catalog of thousands of books were listed in the tenth century, many from authors beyond court of the caliph.
This expansion of intellectual achievements represented a Golden Age of learning.
Baghdad becomes a center for learning.
Persia’s Influence on the Abbasid Caliphate
Islam was brought into Persia in 651
Arabic was the official language
Non-Arabs, Persians that practiced mostly Zoroastrianism, were treated like second-class citizens
In the 9th century, Persian Muslims began a movement against the privileged status of Arabs.
They argued:
Behavior went against Islamic principles of brotherhood and equality
Many Persians then converted to Islam while maintaining their distinctive culture and language
Avicenna (980 - 1037) - a polymath, advanced the science of medicine and wrote about astronomy, geography, and logic.
Rumi (1207 - 1273) - Persian poet, theologian, and jurist, wrote poetry that influenced Persia and the world
Teachings became the basis of the Sufi movement within Islam
a mystical branch of Islam that focuses on personal experience of God through love, devotion, and spiritual practices. Sufis seek to connect with the divine through rituals, music, and poetry.
Persian scholars, scientists, and priests contributed to the Islamic Golden Age
Comparing Islamic Empires
Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750)
Founded by: The Umayyad family of Mecca
Second Caliphate
Location: Southwest Asia, North Africa, and Southwest Europe
Capital: Damascus (later Cordoba)
Other Characteristics:
Non-Arab Muslims were considered inferior
Other religions such as Christianity and Judaism were tolerated
Women enjoyed a high status in society
Many developments in trade and architecture
Ethnicity of Leaders: Arab
Rule: Hereditary
Foreign Policy: Spread influence of Islam
Expansion: Through military conquest
Abbasid Caliphate (750 - 1258)
Founded by: Descendants of Muhammad’s uncle
Third Caliphate
Location: Southwest Asia and North Africa
Capital: Baghdad
Other Characteristics:
Non-Arab Muslims were given special privileges in court
Many non-Muslims converted to Islam
Women lost their status in society
Many developments in art, literature, architecture, science, and technology
Problems for the Abbasids
Grain and produce reached the city as partial payment for taxes from provincial governors
BUT central administration tried to standardize tax collection to be in cash only hoping that it would better support the government and minimize corruption by provincial officials
However, the political empire became increasingly hierarchical with a growing bureaucracy
Viziers (prime ministers) would communicate the will of the ruler to the people
The ruler was often sitting behind a screen since they faced frequent assassination attempts, some of which were successful
While Baghdad flourished in intellectual areas, the rulers faced difficulties with tax collection and control of remote provinces
Invasions of the Abbasids
In the 1100s and 1200s, the Abbasid Empire suffered from attacks from outsiders
Four different groups successfully assaulted parts of the Abbasid -- all coming from the north or west:
Mamluks
Seljuk Turks
Crusaders
Mongols
Invasion of the Mamluks
Turkish group originating in Egypt
Formally a group of military slaves ➔ Took control of Egypt and established an empire in North Africa
Invasion of the Seljuk Turks
Muslim group originating in Central Asia
Seized parts of the Middle East, including Baghdad
Their leader took the title sultan and reduced the Abbasid caliph to the role of chief Sunni religious authority
Soon began to threaten (and eventually conquer) the Byzantine Empire
Invasion of the Crusaders
Under the Abbasids, Christians able to travel to and from holy sites with ease in and around Jerusalem
Under the Seljuk Turks, Christians had limited access to these sites causing the start of the Crusades
Christian group originating in Europe under order from the Pope to take back Jerusalem
Invasion of the Mongols
Originated in Central Asia
Conquered what was left of the Abbasid Empire in 1258
Pushed the Seljuk Turks out of Baghdad
Continued pushing westward, stopped in Egypt by the Mamluks
Economic Challenges of the Abbasids
Trade patterns began shifting when:
Baghdad lost its traditional place in the southern Silk Roads when goods began to move more frequently along northern routes
Over time, Baghdad suffered from:
Population loss
Canals neglected
Countryside could not meet the agricultural needs not being met by the urban population
Infrastructure fell apart
Islamic Rule in Spain
The Umayyads only briefly ruled in the Middle East but had more success in the West
In 711, Muslim forces defeated the Byzantine armies across North Africa and invaded Spain
Designated Cordoba as their capital in Spain
Expanded northward sending forces into France at the Battle of Tours
Battle of Tours
A rare Islamic defeat as Muslim forces forced to turn back by Frankish forces in 732
Marked the limit of rapid Islamic expansion into Western Europe
Most of Europe remained Christian, but Muslims ruled Spain for the next seven centuries
Prosperity in Spain Under Islam
Much like the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Umayyad rulers in established a time of prosperity in Cordoba
Created a climate of tolerance between Muslims and Christians
Promoted trade of Chinese and Southeast Asian products entering Spain throughout the rest of Europe
Dhows - trade ships developed in India or China that carried goods into the area
Constructed with long, thin hulls excellent for carrying goods and conducting warfare
Islamic architectural influence seen in Spain
Impressive buildings, palaces, and fortresses build during this time
The Alhambra built in the 13th century in present-day Grenada
Scholars in Spain
Islamic state in Spain known as al-Andalus became a center for learning
Cordoba housed the largest library in the world at the time
Famous Scholars from Spain
Ibn Rushd (known as Averroes in Europe) of the 12th century
Wrote influential works of law, secular philosophy, and natural sciences
Maimonides
Jewish scholar of ethics
Cultural Advancements of the Islamic World
Despite the Islamic world breaking apart politically, it flourished culturally:
Trade brought in new goods and ideas
Great universities were established, in addition to the ones in Baghdad and Cordoba, in Cairo and Bukhara (in central Asia)
“Seek knowledge even as far as China” - Saying of Muhammad
Islamic scholars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic
This act saved the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers
Islamic scholars brought back:
Mathematics texts from India and paper-making skills from China
Islamic scholars advanced medical practices and improved hospital care
Implemented the practice for doctors and pharmacists to pass license exams in order to practice
Islamic writers, such as the Persian Omar Khayyam, wrote the book The Rubaiyat
His works and others still remain well known throughout the world
Social Classes in the Islamic World
Before the age of Muhammad farmers and sailors were more common than pastoral nomads in the Arabian Peninsula
Nomads led the camel caravans that built trade relationships between coastal and interior dwellers
Trade between the Byzantine and Islamic empires created contact between Muslims, Christians, and Jews
Trade Spreads Ideas!
Kinship remains the foundation of social relations in the early Islamic world
Clan members had strong mutual loyalties, as they did in the Bedouin world
Trade along the Red Sea increased leading to the growth of the powerful merchant elite in many cities
In the days of Muhammad, Mecca and Medina became stops on the long-distance camel routes
Mosques and shariah provided a common base for social and cultural life
In non-Arab areas, control by Islamic caliphs led to discrimination towards non-Arabs, rarely leading to persecution
Discrimination gradually faded in the 9th century
The caliph’s soldiers were forbidden to own territory they conquered
Permanent military force helped keep order, but did not change life in the countryside
People paid tribute to Islamic caliphs rather than Byzantine rulers
Commerce and Class in the Islamic World
In Islamic society, the role of merchants were more prestigious than in European and Asian societies of the same time
Muhammad and his wife had been merchants
Merchants can grow wealthy from dealings with far away trade routes across the Indian Ocean and Central Asia
Held high esteem as long as they were honest and gave to charity
Slavery in the Islamic World
Slavery was not forbidden in the Islamic world, however, Muslims could not enslave:
Others Muslims
Jews
Christians
Zoroastrians
Most slaves were imported from Africa, Kievan Rus (an eastern Slavic state), and Central Asia.
Slavery was not considered to be hereditary
Many slaves were granted their freedom by converting to Islam
Slave Women often:
Served as concubines to Islamic men (if they already had four wives)
Allowed more independence - go to the market, run errands - than legal wives
Permitted to dance or perform musical before unrelated men - earning them money to buy freedom
Women in the Islamic World
Some practices now associated with Islam were common customs in Central Asia and the Byzantine Empire before the time of Muhammad
Women and men often covered their heads and faces:
For women, observing hijab, dressing modestly or covering one’s head and/or face
Men often wore head coverings such as turbans or skull caps
Overall, women enjoyed a higher status than Christian and Jewish women
Able to study and read, but not in the company of men not related to them
Allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage
Allowed to remarry if widowed, and receive cash settlement if divorced
In some cases, may testify in court under shariah, but testimony worth less than a man’s
Gaps in historical written evidence on how women viewed their position in society because most records before 1450 were written by men
Harem - a dwelling set aside for wives, concubines (a woman who lives with a man but has lower status than his wife), and their children
Muhammad’s policies raised the status of women in several way:
He treated his wives with love and devotion
He insisted that dowries to be paid to the future wife rather than her father
He forbade female infanticide
Recognized women’s ability to get an education and own businesses
Zaynab was a famous female calligrapher
Sufism in the Islamic World
As Islam spread, it became more varied and new branches appeared
Sufism
Emerged in India and Persia as a mystical response to the perceived love of luxury in the early Umayyad Caliphate
Notable for their shaved heads
Followed rituals and performed chants in attempts to get closer to God
Abstained from earthly pleasure
Used a whirling dance to express religious spirituality
Unlike Muslims who focused on intellectual pursuits, Sufis emphasized introspective truths that they believed cannot be understood through learning